tion, he started business about 1740-1. and in 1743 was appointed printer to the university. In this same year he brought out Demetrius Phalerens, the first Greek book ever printed in Glasgow; and this was soon followed by the famous 12mo edition of Horace, which was long but erroneously believed to be immaculate: though the successive sheets were suspended in the university and a reward offered for the discovery of any inaccuracy, six errors at least, according to Dibdin, escaped detection. Soon afterwards the brothers entered into partnership, and they continued for about 30 years to issue carefully corrected and elegantly printed editions of classical works in Latin, Greek, English, French, and Italian. Upwards of 500 separate publications proceeded from their press-among he more noticeable being the small editions of Cicero, Tacitus, Cornelius Nepos, Virgil, Tibullus and Propertius, Lucretius, and Juvenal; a beautiful edition of the Greek Testament in small 4to; Homer, 4 vols. fol., 1756-1758; Herodotus, Greek and Latin, 9 vols. 12mo, 1761; Xenophon, Greek and Latin, 12 vols. in 12mo, 1762-1767; Gray's Poems; Pope's Works; Milton's Poems. The brothers spared no pains, and Robert went to France to procure manuscripts of the classics, and to engage a skilled engraver and a copper-plate printer. Unfortunately it became their ambition to establish an institution for the encouragement of the fine arts; and though one of their chief patrons, the earl of Northumberland, warned them to "print for posterity and prosper," they spent their money in collecting pictures, pieces of sculpture, and models, in paying for the education and travelling of youthful artists, and in copying the masterpieces of foreign art. Their countrymen were not ripe for such an attempt, and the Academy" not only proved a failure but involved the projectors in ruin. Andrew died in 1775, and his brother went to London, hoping to realize a large sum by the sale of his pictures. They were sold for much less than he anticipated, and he returned broken-hearted to Scotland, where he died at Edinburgh in June, 1776. The debts of the firm amounted to £6500. Robert was the author of a Catalogue of Paintings with Critical Remarks, 3 vols. See W. J. Duncan, Notices and Documents illustrative of the Literary History of Glasgow, printed for the Maitland Club, 1831, which inter alia contains a catalogue of the works printed at the Foulis press, and another of the pictures, statues, and busts in plaster of Paris produced at the "Academy" in the university of Glasgow. FOUNDING, the art of reproducing solid objects in metal or other fusible substances by pouring the melted substance into moulds. It is also known as casting, and objects so produced are said to be of cast metal. founding or casting is carried on are termed foundries, and Works where their proprietors founders. The verb to found is not, however, in current use, being almost entirely replaced by cast. The root of the word is the Latin fundus. : Three principal operations are involved in founding :(1) moulding, or the production of a hollow mould to receive the melted metal; (2) melting, or running down the metal; and (3) pouring, or filling the mould with the liquid metal. The preparation of the original object or pattern from which the mould is made is not strictly part of foundry work proper, the founder receiving the pattern prepared in wood from the original drawings from the engineer's patternmaker, except in those cases where no pattern is required, and the model is built up on the foundry floor by the moulder by the use of revolving templates, dividing engines, or other contrivances. The metals best suited for foundry work are those that Lossess the property of increasing in volume at the moment of passage from the liquid to the solid state, so that its particles may be pressed into and fill up the finest cavities of the mould in setting. This property is best developed in bismuth, the alloys of copper with tin and zine (bronze and brass), and cast iron. Lead does not take a sharp impression unless alloyed with tin or antimony, as in type metal. Copper also does not give sound castings. Patterns for moulding require to be made somewhat larger than the cast required, the difference being determined by the linear dilatation of the metal between the ordinary temperature and that at the moment of solidification. This varies for different metals; for cast iron it is about; for hard bronze,, soft bronze, ; brass,; zinc,; lead, ; tin,; and bismuth, 5. Patterns for iron founders are therefore made larger than the finished size required in 423 linear measurement, an allowance known as "shrinkage"the patternmaker's rule being longer by that quantity than the proportion of one-eighth of an inch to the foct in their the ordinary engineer's rule. Patterns are usually made of wood, except when the object is intended to be reproduced in great numbers, when brass or iron ones are often used. The more easily fusible alloys, such as pewter, type metal, Britannia metal, etc., are cast in metallic (iron or brass) moulds, which are used indefinitely; but with metals having a higher melting point, a separate mould is required for each cast, metal moulds being only used with these, for the production of ingots or masses that are brought to shape by other means, or when a special quality of surface is required, as in chill casting. determined by the empty space included between the mould proper which represents the external surface of the object, In most cases castings are hollow, the thickness being and a false mould or core, which may also reproduce a finished surface, as in cylinders, pipes, etc., or be rough and uneven, as in statuary castings, where only the external surface is exposed. The material generally used in moulding from patterns is fine sand, either “green," i.e., slightly damp, being adopted for all castings of moderate size and weight, while dry sand mouldings are chiefly used for heavy castor dry, that is, dried by artificial heat-the first method ings where great solidity and strength are required. and uniform grain, a certain amount of cohesiveness without being sticky, infusibility at the temperature of the metal The principal requisites of a good foundry sand are fine poured, and freedom from combustible or other substances giving off gases when heated. These are best fulfilled by a nearly pure quality of siliceous sand, with at most 3 or 4 per cent. of clay and a slight proportion of hydrated peroxide of iron; the particles when moulded should allow free passage for gases to escape, while perfectly impermeable to the most parts of the United Kingdom, the best being those obtained from reconstructed sandstones in the alluvia of melted metal. Good foundry sands are easily procured in the Thames and other large rivers, and the drift of the countries not so well provided, foundry sands are often imNew Red Sandstone districts of central England. In other ported or brought from considerable distances inland. the supply for new moulds is taken as required. Fresh frame or box called a flask, as many flasks being used as flask laid with its lugs uppermost is rammed up with old sand to a smooth surface. In this the lower half of the The ordinary operation of moulding is as follows. A pattern is imbedded, and the surface is covered with dry or facing sand to prevent adhesion. Upon this a second flask is placed, and sand is carefully rammed upon the pattern until the box is completely filled, when the whole is turned over, and the first or false part is emptied, the surface of the upper half smoothed down or faced with sand or finely passage or ingate for the metal, inserted. The second half is then similarly moulded in a second flask, and when ground coal or charcoal, and a runner stick, which forms the finished the upper box is lifted by a crane, leaving the pattern in the lower one or drag, from which it is lifted by spikes or rods screwed on temporarily, a slight vibrating motion being set up by striking it rapidly with a piece of wood or iron in order to start it more easily. This is an operation of some nicety, as the blows must be moderate so as not to risk injury to the sand. Provision is made for the exit of gases by piercing vent holes through the sand by a fine wire during ramming. The surface of the mould is finished by dusting it over with charcoal or graphite. In moulding railway chairs and similar objects of an irregular form required in great numbers, metal patterns are used with loose pieces united by spikes and dove-tails for the overhanging parts, such as the inner faces of the jaws, the joints being so arranged that the straight parts of the pattern may be withdrawn, leaving the loose parts behind in the mould, whence they are afterwards removed moulds, being divided into two parts, are brought up to the work and removed by trucks running upon railways. FIG. 1.-Arrangement of Patterns in casting Railway Chairs. holes in the finished casting (fig. 2), and prevent them being dragged away with the pattern, as they might be if left unsupported. The regular descent of the pattern is ensured by the deep sides A and the guides they move in. Usually four patterns are fixed upon one table, so that four chairs are moulded at one operation, the withdrawal of the pattern being effected by lowering the table by a hydraulic press or other mechanical arrangement. The lower mould FIG. 2.-Finished Castings. forming the base of the chair is a nearly flat plate moulded in another machine. In loam moulding, as used for large pipes or cylinders, a hollow core of iron or brick is placed in the centre of the foundry, and around it a layer of loam, that is, a mixture of sand and clay rendered plastic by mixture with water, is laid on by trowels and finished up by a revolving template working round a central vertical spindle to the dimension of the interior, forming the "nowel" or core, which when dried is washed with finely ground charcoal and water. Upon this a loam pattern is made up by another template representing the outer surface of the cylinder to the thickness of the finished work. This in like manner is dried and black-washed, and finally a shell of brickwork is built outside, leaving a few inches space between it and the second moulded surface, which is carefully filled up with loam, and forms the "cope" or mould proper. This when dried is lifted by a crane, and either separates from the pattern or "thickness" or drags it away with it, but in either case the latter is broken away, and when the cope is replaced the mould is ready for use as soon as the necessary air-vento, ingates, runner passages, etc., have been provided. In many large foundries, however, gas and water pipes of large size are now produced from permanent moulds of cast iron faced with a thin layer of sand or loam; the outer The method of moulding for bell-founding and statuary is generally similar in principle to that of a loam moulding, with this difference, that the thickness representing the finished object is made up not of loam but of wax, and in the case of statuary, where the object is to use as little metal as possible, it is usually very thin. A plaster cast divided into sections, taken from the original work, forms the matrix within which the wax is moulded of the proper thickness, the inside core being formed of clay with some metal bars to give support, when the work is large. When the plaster mould is removed, the waxen surface is finished up by the sculp tor, and the outer mantle or mould proper is formed by coating it with a porous clay mixture. This when dried is carefully baked or burned in a furnace, and the wax melting at the same time leaves the hollow to receive the metal. It is sometimes necessary to leave holes in the casting to allow of the withdrawal of the surface; these are afterwards stopped with plugs of the same metal. Great care is required in the placing of the ingates and runners so as to allow the mould to be regularly and rapidly filled, and prevent any part of the metal setting or chilling before the proper moment. Melting. This may be effected either with or without contact with the fuel. In the former case the metal is charged alternately with coke, and occasionally a little flux, into a cylindrical or slightly conical blast furnace known as a cupola, and accumulates in a hollow or sump at the bottom below the tuyeres or blast pipes, whence it is tapped out from time to time, either directly into the mould or more generally into a ladle, for conveyance to the moulds arranged upon the foundry floor. In the second case the fusion takes place either upon the bed of a reverberatory furnace or in crucibles in air furnaces heated by coke or by gaseous fuel. Of these methods the first or cupola is only fitted for iron founding, the reverberatory furnace is used for bronze and iron, and in special forms for steel; while crucible melting is most general for brass and bronze small castings, as well as for the finer kinds of steel, or generally for any metal that is likely to be altered by direct contact with the fuel. The description of these appliances belongs more properly to the article FURNACE. The founder's ladle or "shank" is a bucket or cup-shaped vessel of wrought iron lined with a shell of fire-clay, with a lip for pouring, having two projecting handles. One of these is straight and serves as a pivot; the other with a cross bar called a crutch is used as a tipping handle when pouring. When of small size the filled ladle can be carried from the cupola to the work and poured by two men, but when of large size containing several tons of metal they are slung from a crane and tipped by a tangent screw and worm wheel, manipulated by a man standing at a distance. The perfection of ladle arrangement is to be seen in Bessemer's process of steel making, where several tons of melted steel are distributed into a ring of ingot moulds in a circular pit by two or three men in a very few minutes. In Krupp's arrangements for making large steel castings from crucibles an intermediate or equalizing ladle is used. The crucibles, which contain about 70 1b each, are drawn from the furnaces in regular order, and poured in such a manner that an uninterrupted stream of metal is kept up from the ladle to Large castings when filled from above are liable to be spongy or unsound in the upper part of the mould, or that last filled. In such cases an extra length is given at the top of the mould, as the unsound portion or dead-head is afterwards removed. This plan is usually followed in cast ing bronze guns. Sound and dense castings can be obtained by filling with a vertical side runner, so that the metal enters the mould from below and solidifies under the hydrostatic head represented by the vertical height of the runner. A method employed by Sir Joseph Whitworth, of applying hydraulic pressure to the metal in the mould until it solidifies, has been adopted with great success by the inventor in the prevention of blow holes and similar imperfections in steel ingots. the mould. În “chill casting" a portion of the surface of the whole or a part of the mould is made of cast iron, so that the metal brought in contact with it is rapidly cooled. It is adopted in the production of Palliser's cast iron projectiles for penetrating armor plates, rolls for boiler and other iron plates, and paper glazing, and in America for hardening the treads of railway wheels. The iron where in contact with the chill surface becomes white, of a platy crystalline structure, and intensely hard, while such portions as are cooled in contact with the sand remain finely granular, dark gray, and comparatively soft. (II. B.) FOUNDLING HOSPITALS are intended to save children from death by exposure, and it is therefore difficult to describe them properly apart from the general subject of infanticide. This practice was extremely common among nearly all ancient nations. It may still be studied in such horrible institutions of savage life as the Areoi of the Society Islands, or the Meebra of New South Wales; and it may be found in the greatest variety of form among the tribes of Hindustan.' The motives which suggested the practice were sometimes superstitious, more often extremely practical. As the natives of Gujarat said to Major Walker, Pay our daughters' marriage portions, and they shall live." The feeling here was one of social dignity mixed with the strong contempt which many savages express for the single life. But in most cases children were killed simply because the parents, having no realized wealth, did not expect to be able to clothe and feed them. This is especially seen in the frequent killing of female children and those who are sick or deformed. In some places the practice has been confined to the children of concubines, of stranger fathers, or of mothers dying from sickness. In the earliest society the right to kill belonged to the father, sometimes assisted by a person skilled in omens, or by a council of friends. But the usage soon hardened into a binding custom or into express legislation. Thus in the exogamous communities girls were clearly a source, not of weakness only, but of danger. At a much later period the number of a family, or of the daughters, was often fixed by law, and both Ly curgus and the Roman decemvirs directed the slaughter of deformed children. This violence to the domestic affections was probably made easier by the notion which appears in Greek science and in Roman law that neither the fœtus nor the newly-born child is entitled to the privileges of humanity. The Greek pastoral of Longus (The Loves of Daphnis and Chloe), and the Heautontimorumenos of Terence, show still better than the text of laws how the conscience of a 1 Compare Moore on Hindu Infanticide, 1811, with Brown on Infanticide in India, 1868. In Baluchistan, where children are often drowned in milk, there is a euphemistic proverb, "The lady's daughter died drinking milk." civilized society reconciled itself to such cruelties. And the sober reasoning of Aristotle (Republic, vii. c. 16) goes even beyond the custom of his time. Pliny the elder defends infanticide as a necessary check on population, and Quintilian and Seneca bear witness to the frightful mortality among children exposed, and the systematic mutilation of those who survived. Notwithstanding the eloquent pro tests of the Christian fathers, it was not till the time of Severus and Caracalla that a Roman lawyer ventured to make the noble statement, "Necare videtur non tantum is qui partum perfocat, sed is qui abjicit et qui alimonia denegat, et is qui publicis locis misericordiæ causa exponit quam ipse non habet." The legislation of Constantine did not go beyond a declaration that the killing of a son was parricide, but the famous law of Valentinian, Valeus, and Gratian (unusquisque suam sobolem nutriat, C. viii. 52, 2) punished exposure by the loss of the patria potestas, and secured the rights of the foster-father. Finally, by Novel 153, Justinian declared that the foundling should no longer be the slave of the foster-father, but should be free. This, however, did not affect western Europe, where social disorder and the recurrence of famine led to extensive sales of children. Against this evil, which was noticed by several councils, the church provided a rough system of relief, children being deposited (jactati) in marble shells at the church doors, and tended first by the matricularii or male nurses, and then by the nutricarii or foster-parents.3 Nothing is known of the brephotrophia which are said to have existed in the Eastern empire at this time nor of the public tables (such as Velleiana, Beebiana) which particular emperors are said to have provided for the support of children. The earlier traditions of a hospital at the Cynosarges in Athens and at the Columna Lactaria in the vegetable market at Rome are disputed. It is in the 7th and 8th centuries that definite institutions for foundlings are established in such towns as Trèves, Milan, and Montpellier. In the 15th century Garcias, archbishop of Valentia, is a conspicuous figure in this charitable work; but his fame is entirely eclipsed by that of St. Vincent de Paul, who in the reign of Louis XIII., with the help of the countess of Joigny, Mme. le Gras, and other religious ladies, rescued the foundlings of Paris from the horrors of a primitive institution named La Couche (Rue St. Landry), and ultimately obtained from Louis XIV. the use of the Bicêtre for their accommodation. Letters patent were granted to the Paris hospital in 1670. The Hôtel-Dieu of Lyons was the next in importance. No provision, however, was made outside the great towns; the houses in the cities were overcrowded and administered with laxity; and in 1784 Necker prophesied that the state would yet be seriously embarrassed by this increasing evil. From 1452 to 1789 the law had imposed on the seigneurs de haut justice the duty of succoring children found deserted on their ter ritories. The first constitutions of the Revolution under took as a state debt the support of every foundling. For a time premiums were given to the mothers of illegitimate children, the "enfants de la patrie." By the law of 12 Brumaire, An II., "Toute recherche de la paternité est interdite," while by art. 341 of the Code Napoléon, “la recherche de la matérnité est admise." what is called L'Assistance Publique are the decree of January, France. The present laws of France relating to this part of 1811, the instruction of February, 1823, the decree of 5th March, 1852, and the law of 5th May, 1869. These laws carry out the general principles of the law of 7th Frimaire, An V., which completely decentralized the system of national poor relief established by the Revolution. The "enfants assistes" include, besides orphans and foundlings proper, infants brought by their parents into the asylum, and those born in lying-in hospitals and left there by their mothers, children of persons undergoing a judicial sentence, children temporarily taken in while their parents are in the hospital, and an increasing number of children, legitimate, illegitimate, and orphans, who are supported by a system of out-door relief. The asylum which receives them is a departmental and not a communal institution. The state pays only the cost of inspection and superintendence. There remain the "home" expenses, for the nurse (nourrice sédentaire), washing and clothes; and the "out-door" expenses, See Julius Paulus, sive de partus expositione et nece apud veteres, by Gerard Noodt, 1700, criticised by Bynkershoek, De Jure occidendi, vendendi, et exponendi liberos apud Romanos, 1719. See Capitularia Regum Francorum, ii. 474. 4 De l'Administration des Finances, iii. 136; see also the article "Enfant Exposé" in Diderot's Encyclopédie, 1755, and Chamousset's Me moire politique sur les Enfants, 1757. which include (1) temporary assistance to unmarried mothers vincial deputation have certain rights of control over charitable In order to prevent desertion; (2) allowances to the foster-fathers administration. (See Della Carita Preventiva in Italia, by Si(pères nourriciers) in the country for board, school money, etc.; gnor Fano.) In Rome one branch of the St. Spirito in Sassis (3) clothing; (4) travelling money for nurses and children; (5) (so called from the Schola Saxonum built in 728 by King Ina printing, etc.; and (6) expenses in time of sickness and for bur- in the Borgo) has, since the time of Pope Sixtus IV., been fals and apprentice fees. In 1868 the total cost was 11,300,171 devoted to foundlings. For ten years before 1869 the annual frs., of which 2,570,171 frs. were paid by the regular foundling average of children admitted was 1141, of whom 382 were ascerasylums, and 8,730,000 frs. by the departments and communes. tained to be illegitimate and 300 legitimate, the rest uncertain. This represented the support of 67,000 children. In 1828 there The average annual number of foundlings supported is 3268, were 112,730 children supported at a cost of 9,794,737 frs. The the average annual deaths 981. The death-rate in the hospital decrease is attributed partly to out-door relief and partly to the is said to be 88-78; in the country at the nursing houses 12.80. suppression of the "tours," of which there were 235 in 1812, and The Conservatory is for the support of foundling girls who after only 25 in 1860. No payments are made for the children after passing through the hospital do not get settled in life. The the age of twelve. They are generally apprenticed to a peasant whole institution costs 305,603 frs. per annum. (See The Charor artisan, and until majority they remain under the guardian-itable Institutions of Rome, by Cardinal Morichini.) In Naples ship of the administrative commissioners of the department. the foundling hospital is called "L'Annunziata." It receives These commissioners are about to receive a representative cha- yearly about 2000 "figli della Madonna," as they are called. racter, the councils of the communes and the department, the It must not be confounded with the more famous Albergo Rechambers of commerce, and the chief religious communities clusorio, or Seraglio dei Poveri, which is an ordinary arity receiving a right of nomination, as well as the prefect who rep- for the education of children and the maintenance of infirm old resents the state. The ministry of marine have a legal claim persons. The chief house at Florence is called ". degli Innoto the services of male foundlings, which is seldom exercised. centi;"1 at Genoa, the "Paminatome;" at Milan, "Santa CateThe droit de recherche is conceded to the parent on payment of rina alla ruota." In Venice the Casa degli Esposti or foundling a small fee. The decree of 1811 contemplated the repayment of hospital, founded in 1346, and receiving 450 children annually, all expenses by a parent reclaiming a child. The same decree was recently separated from the "Riunione di Instituti Pii," directed a "tour" or revolving box (Drehcylinder in Germany) and placed under provincial administration. The splendid to be kept at each hospital. These have been gradually dis- legacy of the last doge, Ludovico Manin, is applied to the supcontinued. The "Assistance Publique" of Paris is specially port of about 160 children by the "Congregazione di Carita” provided for by the law of 10th January, 1849. The manage- acting through 30 parish boards (deputatione fraternate). ment consists of a "directeur" appointed by the minister of the Austria. In Austria foundling hospitals occupied a very interior, and associated with a representative "conseil de sur- prominent place in the general instructions which, by rescript veillance." The Paris Asylum for Enfants Trouvés, with a dated 16th April, 1781, the emperor Joseph II. issued to the small branch at Forges, contains about 700 beds. It receives charitable endowment commission. Acting under the advice about 4200 children in the year, or nearly one-seventh of the of Count Boucquoy, the author of The Neighborly Love Assowhole annual supply in France; and the total average cost of ciation, which supplied first Bohemia and then the empire with each child for twelve years is said to be only 1500 frs. There a type of poor law administration, the emperor provided for is also in Paris (43 Rue de Journelles) a private charity called the case of destitute children before proceeding to deal with the Euvre de l'Adoption for the adoption of poor children and cases of destitute sick and infirm poor. This class of children orphans. Among the better known school farms which receive includes, besides foundlings proper, the children born in lyingchildren from the hospitals at very small rates of board are in hospitals of unmarried women, and the children of unmarthose of M. Fournet at Montagny near Chalon-sur-Saône, and ried women who can show that they have been suddenly conof l'Abbé Vedey at Varaignes in the Dordogne. It is impossi- fined when on their way to the lying-in hospital, and even in ble here to give even a sketch of the long and able controversies some cases legitimate children whose parents are prevented by which have occurred in France on the principles of manage- illness or other temporary cause from maintaining them, and ment of foundling hospitals, the advantages of "tours" and the orphans when below the age required for admission to a regusystem of admission à bureau ouvert, the transfer of orphans lar orphanage. In 1818 these foundling asylums and the from one department to another, the free communication be- lying-in houses were declared to be state institutions. They tween parent and child, the hygiène and service of hospitals were accordingly supported by the state treasury until the and the inspection of nurses, the education and reclamation of fundamental law of 20th October, 1860, handed them over to the children and the rights of the state in their future. Refer- the provincial committees. They are now local institutions, ence may be made to the work of Terme and Montfalcon noticed depending on provincial funds, and are quite separate from at the end of this article. the ordinary parochial poor institute. Admission is gratuitous when the child is actually found on the street, or is sent by a criminal court, or where the mother undertakes to serve for four months as nurse or midwife in an asylum, or produces a certificate from the parish priest and "poor-father" (the parish inspector under the Boucquoy scheme) that she has no money. In other cases payments of 30 to 100 florins are made. When two months old the child is sent for six or ten years to the houses in the neighborhood of respectable married persons, who have certificates from the police or the poor-law authorities, and who are inspected by the latter and by a special medical officer. These persons receive a constantly diminishing allowance, and the arrangement may be determined by 14 days' notice on either side. The foster-parents may retain the child in their service or employment till the age of twenty-two, but the true parents may at any time reclaim the foundling on reimbursing the asylum and compensating the foster-parents. The enlightened principles of the rescript of 1781, with regard to the general and technical education of the children, do not seem to be carried out in practice. It is said that there are in the empire 35 foundling hospitals, receiving annually 120,000 children. Belgium. In this country the arrangements for the relief of foundlings and the appropriation of public funds for that purpose very much resemble those in France, and can hardly be usefully described apart from the general questions of local government and poor law administration. The Commissions des Hospices Civiles, however, are purely communal bodies, although they receive pecuniary assistance from both the departments and the state. A decree of 1811 directed that there should be an asylum and a wheel for receiving foundlings in every arrondissement. The last "wheel," that of Antwerp, was closed in 1860. The present law of 30th July, 1834, distinguishes foundlings born of unknown parents from infants abandoned by known parents. Of the former the cost is divided between commune and province; of the latter the cost falls entirely on the domicile de secours. The law of 1834 directs that the state budget shall contain an annual foundling subsidy, which is distributed among the provinces. The suppression of the "wheels" is supposed to have reduced the subsidy from 94,608 frs. to 50,000 frs. in 1873, and the number of foundlings from 7703 in 1849 to 5745 in 1860. The great mass of the foundlings are in Brabant, that is, in Brussels, which in 1872 paid out nearly 300,000 frs. on their account. In the Netherlands many of the foundlings are sent to the "beggar colonies,"agricultural, spinning, and weaving establishments introduced in 1810 in imitation of the French dépôts de mendicité. They also resemble the Flemish écoles agricoles de réforme. (See Des Institutions de Bienfaisance et de Prévoyance en Belgique, 1850 à 1860, par M. P. Lentz.) Italy is very rich in foundling hospitals, pure and simple, orphans and other destitute children being separately provided for. Piedmont has 18, making an annual expenditure of 1,084,000 frs.: Genoa has 6, with an expenditure of 350,000 frs.; Lombardy has 13, with an expenditure of 1,468,000 frs.; and the Emilia has 15, with an expenditure of 833,000 frs. In 1870 the gross expenditure in Italy on foundlings alone was 8,044,754 frs., more than twice the sum expended on pauper lunatics. The law concerning charitable works (3d August, 1862) contemplates the erection of a charity board in every commune. At present both the communal council and the pro Turkey. Under the Greek system of vestry relief, which works very efficiently at Constantinople, a large sum is spent on foundlings. There is no hospital, but the children are brought before the five members (ériropol) of the vestry (fabrique) or parish church committee, who, acting as the coumbaros or god-father, board out the child with some poor family for a small monthly payment, and afterwards provide the child with some sort of remunerative work. Russia.-Under the old Russian system of Peter I. foundlings were received at the church windows by a staff of women paid by the state. But since the reign of Catherine II. the foundling hospitals have been in the hands of the provincia officer of public charity (prykaz obshestvennago pryzrenya). The great central institutions (Vospitatelnoi Dom), at Moscow and St. Petersburg (with a branch at Gatchina) were founded 1 For the history of the Misericordia and Bigallo (White Cock founded by the Brothers of Mercy, see Horner's Walks in Florence, vol. 1. by Catherine. When a child is brought the baptismal name is asked, and a receipt is given, by which the child may be reclaimed up to the age of ten. The mother may nurse her child. After the usual period of six years in the country very great care is taken with the education, especially of the more promising children. Of the 26,000 sent annually to these two houses from all parts of Russia, only 25 per cent. are said to reach majority. The hospital is still, however, a valuable source of recruits for the public service. Malthus (The Principles of Population, vol. i. p. 434) has made a violent attack on these Russian charities. He argues that they discourage marriage and therefore population, and that the best management is unable to prevent a high mortality. He adds: "An occasional child murder from false shame is saved at a very high price if it can be done only by the sacrifice of some of the best and most useful feelings of the human heart in a great part of the nation." It does not appear, however, that the rate of illegitimacy in Russia is comparatively high; it is so in the two great cities. The rights of parents over the children were very much restricted, and those of the Government much extended by a ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas in 1837. The most eminent Russian writer on this subject is M. Gouroff. See his Recherches sur les Enfants Trouvés, and Essai sur l'histoire des Erfants Trouvés, Paris, 1829. expire. From the famous chapel built by Jacobsen in 1747 the ospital derives a net income of £500. The musical service, which was originally sung by the blind children only, was made fashionable by the generosity of Handel, who frequently had the "Messiah" performed there, and who bequeathed to the hospital a MS. copy (full score) of his greatest oratorio. The altarpiece is West's picture of Christ presenting a little Child. In 1774, Dr. Burney and Signor Giardini made an unsuccessful attempt to form in connection with the hospital a public music school, in imitation of the Conservatorium of the Continent. In 1847, however, the present successful "Juvenile Band" of about 30 boys was started. The educational effects of music have been found excellent, and the hospital supplies many musicians to the best army and navy bands. The early connection between the hospital and the eminent painters of the reign of George II. is one of extreme interest. The exhibitions of pictures at the Foundling, which were organized by the Dilettanti Club, undoubtedly led to the formation of the Royal Academy in 1768. Hogarth painted a portrait of Captain Coram for the hospital, which also contains his March to Finchley, and Roubiliac's bust of Handel. Coram, the founder, was remarkable for the versatility of his public spirit. He did much for the development of Georgia and Nova Scotia. (See History and Objects of the Foundling Hospital, with Memoir of its Founder, by J. Brownlow, 3d ed., 1865.) In 1704 the Foundling Hospital of Dublin was opened. No inquiry was made about the parents, and no money received. From 1500 to 2000 children were received annually. A large income was derived from a duty on coal and the produce of car licenses. In 1822 an admission fee of £5 was charged on the parish from which the child came. This reduced the annual arrivals to about 500. In 1829 the select committee on the Irish miscellaneous estimates recommended that no further assistance should be given. The hospital had not preserved life or educated the foundlings. The mortality was nearly 4 in 5, and the total cost £10,000 a year. Accordingly, in 1835, Lord Glenelg (then Irish Secretary) closed the institution. Scotland never seems to have possessed a foundling hospital. In 1759, John Watson left funds which were to be applied to the pious and charitable purpose "of preventing child murder" by the establishment of a hospital for receiving pregnant women and taking care of their children as foundlings. But by an Act of Parliament in 1822, which sets forth "doubts as to the propriety" of the original purpose, the money was given to trustees to erect a hospital for the maintenance and education of destitute children. The fundamental difference between Scotland and most other Protestant countries on the one hand, and those Catholic countries which have adopted the Code Napoléon on the other, is that in the former proceedings for aliment may be taken against the putative father. Hence the mother is not helpless. She cannot, however, in Scotland deposit her bastard in the poorhouse, unless she herself is entitled to relief and prepared to go there; and relief is of course given only so long as the mother is not able to support herself. An infant absolutely deserted would of necessity be taken care of by the poor law authority. It is in Scotland a crime at common law to "expose" a young child to the risk of death or to any serious danger; and it is also an offence against the Poor Law Act of 1845 for either the mother or the putative father (who has acknowledged the paternity) to desert an illegitimate child. In England the offence is defined as the abandoning or exposing a child under the age of two, whereby its life is endangered, or its health is, or is likely to be, permanently injured (24 and 25 Vict. c. 100, 27). Besides this the provisions of the Industrial Schools Acts apply to a large proportion of the cases of be entrusted to the foundling hospitals. And indeed the system of boarding out pauper children seems to have realized most of the advantages promised by the hospital. The disagreeable feature of the Scotch practice is the number of women who, without any feeling of shame, get a family of illegitimate children by different fathers, whom they attack in succession for aliment. The rate of illegitimacy in some Scotch counties has reached 14, 15, and 16 per cent. It is not likely, however, that the hospital principle, though cured of its worst fault, that of secret admission without inquiry, will ever be received in Great Britain or Ireland. The key-note of public opinion on the question was probably struck by Lord Brougham in his Letters to Sir Samuel Romilly on the Abuse of Charities, and by Dr. Chalmers in his Christian Economy of Large Towns. The true solution, however, depends less on abstract political reasoning than on prudent management of existing institutions. France, for instance, a great fund of practical skill in administration has been accumulated. In Great Britain the evil may be more safely left to private charity and religious effort. If fewer women fall there, there is perhaps a profounder degradation of those who do. In America the foundling hospitals are chiefly private charities. There is a large one called the Cuna in the city of Mexico. The house for girls at Rio de Janeiro is once a year frequented by men in want of wives, each application being considered by the managers. In Brazil there are several houses of mercy for foundlings, and exposures are often made at the doors of private houses. The foundling asylum of the sisters of charity in New York was opened in 1869. In 1873 it received 1124 infants not three weeks old. The annual cost is 115,000 dollars. A crib is placed in the vestibule at night, and the name and date of birth are generally left with the child. Great Britain.-The Foundling Hospital of London was incorporated by Royal Charter in 1739 "for the maintenance and education of exposed and deserted young children." The petition of Captain Thomas Coram, who is entitled to the whole credit of the foundation,1 states as its objects "to prevent the frequent murders of poor miserable children at their birth, and to suppress the inhuman custom of exposing new-born infants to perish in the streets." At first no questions were asked about child or parent, but a distinguishing mark was put on each child by the parent. These were often marked coins, trinkets, pieces of cotton or ribbon, verses written on scraps of paper. The clothes, if any, were carefully recorded. One entry is, "Paper on the breast, clout on the head." The applications became too numerous, and a system of balloting with red, white, and black balls was adopted. In 1756 the House of Commons came to a resolution that all children offered should be received, that local receiving places should be appointed all over the country, and that the funds should be publicly guaranteed. A basket was accordingly hung outside the hospital; the maximum age for admission was raised from two to twelve months, and a flood of children poured in from the country workhouses. In less than four years 14,934 children were presented, and a vile trade grow up among vagrants of undertaking to carry children from the country to the hospital,-an undertaking which, like the French meneurs, they often did not perform, or performed with great cruelty. Of these 15,000 only 4400 lived to be apprenticed out. The total expense was about £500,000. This alarmed the House of Commons. After throwing out a bill which proposed to raise the necessary funds by fees from a general system of parochial registration, they came to the conclusion that the indiscriminate admission should be discontin-homeless and deserted children which in other countries might ued. The hospital, being thus thrown on its own resources, adopted a pernicious system of receiving children with considerable sums (e. g., £100), which sometimes led to the children being reclaimed by the parent. This was finally stopped in 1801; and it is now a fundamental rule that no money is received. The committee of inquiry must now be satisfied of the previous good character and present necessity of the mother, and that the father of the child has deserted it and the mother, and that the reception of the child will probably replace the mother in the course of virtue and in the way of an honest livelihood. The principle is in fact that laid down by Fielding in Tom Jones-"Too true I am afraid it is that many women have become abandoned and have sunk to the last degree of vice by being unable to retrieve the first slip." At present the hospital supports about 500 children up to the age of fifteen. The average annual number of applications is 236, and of admissions The children used to be named after the patrons and governors, but the treasurer now prepares a list. After three years in the country the children come back to town. At sixteen the girls are generally apprenticed as servants for four years, and the boys at the age of fourteen as mechanics for seven years. There is a small benevolent fund for adults. The hospital has an income of above £11,000, which will be enormously increased in 1895, when the leaseholds of the Lamb's Conduit grounds 1 Addison had suggested such a charity (Guardian, No. 3). 41. In The following are the most important systematic works on this subject: Histoire Statistique et Morale des Enfants Trouvés, by MM. Terme 2 As M. de Marisy has said, the Enfant trouvé exists no longer; he has been replaced by the Enfant assist. |