sentences; the formation of the former, depending principally upon the distribution of the latter; so that, generally periods correspond with stanzas, members with verses, and pauses of the one with pauses of the other.

This correspondence is called parallelism, the grand and distinguishing characteristic of Hebrew poetry. When a proposition is delivered, and a second drawn under it, equivalent to, or contrasted with, it in sense, or similar to it, in the form of grammatical construction, these are called parallel lines; and the words or phrases answering one to another in corresponding lines, parallel terms.

A single example will illustrate the above definition of parallelism in Luke i. 52, 53. we read,

He (God) hath put down the mighty from their seats,

And exalted them of low degree.

He hath filled the hungry with good things,

And the rich he hath sent empty away.

In this passage the same thing is expressed, viz. that God changes the condition of men: and this same thing is also expressed in corresponding members that represent it in various points of view. Thus the Almighty changes adversity into prosperity, and prosperity into adversity. The words answer to each other, the mighty-those of low degree; put down— exalted; the hungry (or poor)-the rich; filled with good things-sent empty away. Lastly, the things or subjects answer to each other by a contrast sufficiently obvious: the former (the powerful and rich) are depressed; the latter (the humble and poor) are exalted.

The nature of parallelism, thus defined and illustrated, is sometimes so evident as to strike even a careless reader, and sometimes so subtile and obscure as to require considerable practice, and some familiarity with the system, in order to distribute the pauses, and develope the different members of the sentences in probable order and connection. Thus, much doubt has arisen not only as to what books, but as to what parts of books, are to be accounted poetical. Sometimes, according to Dr. Jebb it is continuous and unmixed, as in the Psalms, Pro

verbs, and Canticles; sometimes it characterises the main body of a work with a prosaic introduction and conclusion, as in the book of Job,-sometimes it predominates throughout a whole book with an occasional mixture of prose, as in most of the prophets; sometimes the general texture is prose, with an occasional mixture of verses, as in the historical books, and the book of Ecclesiastes.*

The poetical parallelism has much variety, and many gradations; being sometimes more accurate and manifest, sometimes more vague and obscure: it may, however, on the whole be said to consist of four species, viz. parallel lines Gradational, parallel lines Antithetic, parallel lines Synthetic, and parallel lines Introverted.t

[To be continued.]

Critical and Historical Notices,

INTRODUCTORY TO THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPTURES.

OF THE BOOK OF EXODUS.

THE title of this book is, likewise, descriptive of its contents, namely, the EzOoz, Exodus, or departure of the Israelites from Egypt. By the Jews it was termed on these are the names, from the initial words of the book, or sometimes merely Shemoth.

* Horne's Introduct, vol ii. p. 471.

+ "Bishop Lowth has ranged the different kinds of parallelism under three classes only, viz. parallels synonymous, parallels antithetic, and parallels synthetic. The two last terms, it will be perceived, we have retained, and in lieu of parallels synonymous, we have adopted the term parallel lines gradational. Dr. Jebb has assigned satisfactory reasons for changing the bishop's phraseology. According to Lowth, parallel lines synonymous are those which correspond one to another by expressing in different but nearly equivalent terms. But Dr. Jebb

That Moses was the author of this book we have already shown. It is cited as his, by David, Daniel, and other of the sacred writers. Rivet has observed, that twenty-five passages are quoted by Christ and his apostles out of this book in express words, and nineteen as to the sense.

Exodus contains an history of about 145 years, from the year of the world 2369 to 2514 inclusive,—from the death of Joseph to the erection of the tabernacle. Many of the circumstances here recorded are confirmed by the testimony of heathen writers.*

Moses having, in the preceding book, described the creation of the world, the propagation of the nations, and the origin of the church, now comes, in the book of Exodus, to describe the state and condition of the church, as collected out of several families, and united into one body politic or society, the head of which was Jehovah ; on which account, the government of the Hebrews, from the time of Moses to the institution of royalty among them, has been termed a theocracy. Accordingly, the book of Exodus records the cruel persecution of the Israelites in Egypt under Pharoah (Rameses II), the birth, exposure, and preservation of Moses; his subsequent flight into Midian, his call and mission to Pharoah (Amenophis II); the miracles performed by him and his brother Aaron: the ten plagues also miraculously inflicted on the Egyptians; the institution of the passover, and the departure of the children of Israel from Egypt; their passage across the Red Sea, and the destruction

proves from an examination of the bishop's examples, that this definition does not hold good: he therefore proposes that of cognate parallels, as preferably applicable to this kind of parallels. (Sacred Literature, pp. 34-50.) A learned critic, however, has suggested the term gradational parallelism, as being more expressive, and also most applicable to the examples adduced by Bishop Lowth and Dr. Jebh. (British Critic for 1820. vol. xiv. pp. 585, 586.) We have therefore adopted this term in our work. Dr. J. had farther considered the introverted parallel as a variety of the Hebrew parallelism ; but as the same critic has assigned good reasons for constituting it a distinct class, we have availed ourselves of his authority, and have accordingly adopted it." Horne's Introduct. vol. 2. p. 472.

* Vide Joseph. contra Apion. lib. i. Tacit. Hist. lib. v. § 3. Diodor. Sic. 1. xl.

of the Egyptian army; the subsequent journeyings of the Israelites in the desert, their idolatry, and their frequent murmuring against God; the promulgation of the law from Mount Sinai, and the erection of the tabernacle; the punishment inflicted by God upon his enemies, and the base returns which his people made for his goodness

*

This book contains some predictions, of which it relates also the accomplishment; as the deliverance of the Jews which Moses foresaw and effected. It likewise contains some which were not fulfilled till after his death; as that concerning the conquest of Canaan,+ and the future division and allotment of the land; and also those which related to the revolutions that were to take place in the government of the Jews; their future subjections, captivities, deliverances, and returns.

It should be remarked, that many events recorded in this book, adumbrates the state of the church in the wilderness of this world, until her arrival at the promised Canaan,—the eternal rest, (see 1 Cor. x. 1. &c.). This contributes to point out the consistency of the divine purpose, and the harmony subsisting between the old and new dispensations, with an eye to which it should ever be read.

It is necessary to bear in mind, if we would understand the reason of many injunctions contained in this book, that the great design with which they were framed was, to preserve the Israelites a distinct and independent people, and to prevent their union with other nations; lest they who were to be entrusted with the sacred deposit of the inspired writings, and from whom the Messiah was to descend, should catch the infection of idolatry; or by mingling with the Gentiles should render the accomplishment of the promises doubtful. And as not only the country and the tribe, but the individual family was foretold, from which the Messiah was to spring, it was necessary to ascertain exactly the lineage and descent of each. Hence are the seeds of jealousy industriously sown between the different tribes, and the younger preferred to the elder. If these things are kept in

• Exod. vii. 4. 5.

+ Chap. xv. 14-17. xxiii. 22, 23, 28, 31. xxxiii.. 2.

VOL. I.

B B

view, and the designs of God in the establishment of the Jewish polity attended to, we shall always find much reason to admire the wisdom of his laws and institutions, though we are too partially acquainted with the ancient manners of the Hebrews, and of other nations with whom they were connected, to understand the full scope and importance of every particular injunction. A careful investigation of the mediation of Moses will greatly assist us in understanding the mediation of Jesus Christ.

The circumstances attending the plagues inflicted upon the Egyptians, which are recorded in this book, are fully treated upon by Mr. Bryant, in his learned treatise upon this subject (8vo. London, 1810,) from which the following particulars are abridged by Mr. Horne. As many of the Israelites were followers of the idolatry that surrounded them, these miracles were admirably adapted to display the vanity of the idols and false gods, adored by their oppressors, the proud and learned Egyptians.

1. By the first plague,-Water turned into blood (chap. vii. 14-25.)-was demonstrated the superiority of Jehovah over their imaginary river-gods, and the baseness of the elements which they reverenced. The Nile was religiously honoured by the Egyptians, who valued themselves much upon the excellency of its waters, and esteemed all the natives of the river as in some degree sacred. The Nile was turned into blood, which was an object of peculiar abhorrence to the Egyptians.

2. In the plague of frogs (chap. viii. 1—15.) the object of their idolatrous worship, the Nile, was made an instrument of their punishment. Frogs were esteemed sacred by the Egyptians; but whether from reverence or abhorrence is uncertain. By this plague, the waters of the Nile became a second time polluted, and the land was equally defiled.

3. The plague of lice (chap. viii. 16-19) reproved the absurd superstition of the Egyptians, who thought it would be a great profanation of the temple into which they were going, if they entered it with any animalculæ of this sort upon them. The people, and particularly the priests, never wore woollen garments, but only linen, because linen is least apt to produce