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ment, by calling in the aid of the imagination.* Where these qualities are not found, the writing is not only bad in a literary sense, but in a moral sense also. If it is not the production of ignorance, it is intentionally deceptive and misleading. In the Bible both requisites must be found, beit is "written for our learning"-the learning of the body of mankind, and because it is the result of perfect wisdom and perfect sincerity. It may be said, that the great diversity of meaning attaching to most individual words, in all languages, renders it very difficult, if not wholly impossible, to determine the particular sense in which any one word is employed. But this would be an exaggeration. That there are difficulties arising out of this circumstance, we have already said; but we are not disposed to concede that they are either so numerous, or of such magnitude, as they have been represented to be. Let it be admitted, that many meanings have been assigned to the same word, or that its signification is commonly diverse or multifarious, will it follow, as of necessity, that it must possess this diversity of signification, at the same time, and in the same passage or expression? Certainly not: its significations, however diverse, may be distinctly marked by its relation to other words in the sentence; that is, the proximate words or context may strictly define the sense in which any particular word, having more than one signification, is to be understood, wherever it is employed; and we may be sure that if a writer is desirous to be understood-as the sacred writers undoubtedly were-he will observe those rules of composition that will prevent the obscurity or ambiguity here supposed.||

Every writer wishes to be understood naturally; consequently, he will not only always employ his expressions IN THE SENSE which his readers will connect with them, but in the ideas which he communicates to them, he will always be governed by their ability to comprehend, and will pay regard to their particular manner of forming conceptions of subjects; and this either intentionally, or because, as it is common to his whole age, it is also to his own." Planck's Sacred Philology, part ii. ch. 2.

† Dr. Pye Smith; but we do not recollect where. "There could be no certainty of interpretation, did there not exist some necessity for attaching a peculiar meaning to each word; and were not the literal meaning of the same word in the same passage one and the same."-Ernesti, part i., sect. i. d. 9, § vi. To the same purpose Seiler remarks, "The object of an author in his discourse or writing is to communicate his thoughts to others by the aid of words. These could not, how ever, express his thoughts, if he used the same words, when in the same connexion, sometimes in one sense and sometimes in another. Reason, therefore, enjoins the rule, always to use the same words when they stand in the same connexion, in one and de sme sense."-Biblical Hermeneutics, p. 32.

| Words which are of many meanings may generally be interpreted from the context. Thus oyog has the different meanings, reason, reckoning, speech, Christ. The proper sense of this word must be determined by the construction; as in the τους λόγον υπέχειν, λόγον ποιεῖσθαι, ὁ λόγος σαρξ yévere. Ammon, in Enesti, part i. sect. i. ch. 1., § v., note.

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This section will be devoted to a consideration of those means that are necessary for attaining the object desiderated in the preceding section; viz., a knowledge of the sense in which words are employed by the sacred writers.

I. As the signification which usage attaches to words is a plain matter of fact, it is evident that our inquiries should be first addressed to the testimony, direct and indirect, of those persons by whom the language was spoken; and especially to that of the writer whose works may be under examination. This testimony may be ascertained in three several ways:

1. By THE DEFINITIONS OF WORDS formally or incidentally given. Where the author himself has furnished the definition of a word, no difficulty will exist, provided only that we understand the terms in which the definition is given. As an example, we may refer to Heb. xi. 1, where faith is defined to be the "evidence of things not seen," &c. The value of secondary testimony, such as is furnished by scholiasts, lexicographers, and translators, is to be estimated by the era, knowledge, and known judgment of the writer.

2. THE EXAMPLES WHICH THE AUTHOR GIVES OF THE SIGNIFICATION ATTACHED TO THE WORDS HE EMPLOYS, furnish another means of fixing that signification. This source of information may, possibly, be as satisfactory as the former one; but in availing ourselves of it, we are thrown much more upon the resources of our own skill and judgment. As an illustration of this kind of testimony, and of the manner in which it may be employed, we may refer to Gal. iv. 3, where we find the apostle speaking of the elements of the world (0701×eiã Toũ xóoμov), an expression of which we can discover ninth verse of the same chapter, however, he no definition in any part of his writings. In the furnishes us with an example of the sense in which he had used the phrase, and which is equally satisfactory with a formal definition: "But now, after that ye have known God, or rather are known of God, how turn ye again to the weak and beggarly elements?" (roa), that is, the external rites and ceremonies of religion. In Rom. iv. 1—8, the meaning of the word dixaosuvn, justification, is illustrated by the example of Abraham; and in John xiv. 6, the word magazλnros is similarly illustrated.

3. THE DRIFT OF THE WRITER'S DISCOURSE AND

THE NATURE OF HIS SUBJECT, is the last resource of tropical or figurative, because, in many cases, this
this description that remains to us. It has been is the grammatical signification; but by the gram-
already said, that one and the same word occasion-matical signification, is meant one not allegorical
ally admits of several significations; and this or mystical. For instance, in Luke xxi. 24, it is
being the case, it becomes necessary, in attempting
to fix the signification of a word in any particular
passage, to pay special attention to the drift of the
author's reasoning, and the nature of the subject
to which it relates. The following words may
be taken as an example of our meaning:-The
verb owls, to preserve or save, and woua, to
escape, to be preserved or saved, occurs, perhaps,
more than a hundred times in the New Testament,
and very frequently in different senses. Bishop
Maltby, whose eminence as a Greek scholar few
will dispute, classes the significations in which the
verb is used under four general heads. 1. To
preserve generally from any evil or danger what-
soever. 2. To preserve from sickness or any bodily
disorder; to heal. This sense, he remarks, is
perhaps the most easy to distinguish; yet our
translators have not uniformly given it due atten-
tion. In Matt. ix. 21, 22; Mark v. 23, 28, 34;
vi. 56; x. 52; Luke viii. 36, 48, 50; xvii. 19;
John xi. 12; Acts xiv. 9, it is rightly translated
to heal, or make whole.-In Luke vii. 50; xviii.
42; James v. 15, although the same word is
applied to the same circumstances, yet it is ren-
dered by the indefinite word save. The 3rd sense
in which the verb is used, is to preserve from the
temporal anger of the Almighty; such as was
manifested in the destruction of Jerusalem. The
4th sense has a strict reference to future salvation
in heaven. Mr. Locke seems to have distinguished
the third and fourth senses, by considering salva-
tion as two-fold; first, admission into the kingdom
of God in this world; secondly, actual possession
of eternal life in the kingdom of God in the world
The first and second state of salvation
would thus coincide with what the best divines
have agreed to call the first and final justification.
The other word is zagis, grace, which denotes
divine benevolence in general, temporal blessings,
spiritual aid, pardon of sin, &c.; but which of
these senses either yagis or we has in any
particular passage, is only to be determined by the
nature of the subject and the scope of the writer.

said, that Jerusalem should be "trodden down of
the Gentiles," where it is evident that the phrase
TRODDEN DOWN is figurative or tropical; that is,
the words are diverted from their natural mean-
ing, and signify desolated, destroyed, not absolutely
trodden down by the foot, but something analogous
to it. But then the tropical sense is evidently,
in this case, the grammatical or proper sense,
because the words cannot be understood in any
other manner, without doing violence to the lan-
guage. Again, in John v. 35, our Lord says of
his forerunner, John the Baptist, that he was “a
burning and a shining light," which language is
highly figurative or metaphorical, implying, that
John was a zealous and exemplary teacher of
righteousness; but this, it is evident, is also the
grammatical meaning of the words. We repeat,
then, that the grammatical, or what interpreters
call the grammatico-historical sense
* of a passage,
is the true sense; and, consequently, that which
ought always to be adopted.

to come.

II. What has been now said, will aid the student in forming a judgment as to the higher sources whence he is to derive the necessary testimony to the signification of words. What follows will assist him in the operation of interpreting their meaning.

1. The GRAMMATICAL signification of the words is the only true signification.

(1) By the grammatical signification of a word, is not meant a signification in opposition to the

are

Our

(2) By this it will be seen, that the natural figures of thought and of diction, are not excluded from the sacred writings. But then it is important to remark, that whatever figures do occur, employed for the purpose of making truth more plain to the understanding, and of impressing it more deeply on the heart; and that, therefore, the process of the association which connects the figurative object with the writer's meaning, may be easily disentangled, and rapidly seized. rule holds good, therefore, under every circumstance which can be conceived; and attention to it will guard us against that system of interpretation which assumes the Scriptures to be written in such a style of hyperbole, metaphor, and allegory, that when the critical operator has brought out what he deems the sober sense, the reader of plain understanding and simple piety is astonished at a result so diminutive, and so disproportionate to the general use and purpose of words.t

2. The LITERAL meaning of words (using the term in its usual acceptation, as opposed to figurative or metaphorical) is always to be preferred. and not to be departed from without weighty and sufficient reasons.

(1) The necessity of this rule will be found in

That is, the grammatical sense, modified by historical cir

cumstances.

+ See Dr. J. P. Smith's Scripture Testimony to the Messiah, vol. i., p. 19.

the fact, that the adoption of figurative language is to be considered as an exception to the ordinary rules of composition. This may, at first sight, seem to contradict experience, but a moment's consideration will render its truth apparent. Does any person, either in speaking or in writing, alays employ tropical or figurative language? Certainly not; words are usually employed by all persons in their obvious or proper sense; and no good writer will adopt them in an improper or figurative sense, without giving a sufficient intiration of his having so done.

Stretching out the heavens as with a curtain ;
Laying the beams of thy chambers in the waters;
Making the clouds thy chariot;
Walking upon the wings of the wind:
Making the winds thy messengers,
And thy ministers a flaming fire.
Who founded the earth upon its bases;
That it should not be displaced for more than ages !

(3) In such cases as these, it is impossible to mistake, for the grossest mind could not construe the passages literally; their metaphorical sense is immediately perceived, and the understanding spontaneously acquiesces in such an interpretation. The same may be said of other passages, where a single figure of thought occurs; as in John vi. 51, where our Lord declares himself to be the "living bread," and affirms that his flesh shall be "eaten." In chap. xv. 1, he says, he is the "vine," and his Father the "husbandman ;" in ver. 5, that his disciples are the "branches;" in chap. x. 7, that he is the "door;" and further on, that he is the "shepherd," and his disciples the "sheep" each of which passages is to be understood figuratively, for which there is an ob

(2) On this topic, the maxim commonly laid down by biblical writers, is, not readily to depart from the literal sense of words; but this maxim. as Ernesti suggests, is neither strictly true, nor perspicuous, nor adapted to use; and he accordingly prefers that which avers, that the literal meaning is not to be deserted without evident reason or necessity; which is substantially the same as that above laid down.* Where there is a plain necessity for departing from the literal sense, then, we must evidently admit the tropical; but in no other case whatever. Thus, in Psalm xix. 4, 5, the writer expresses himself in the following lan-vious reason, and because, as before remarked, guage, in reference to the great luminary of our system :

In them he hath set a tabernacle for the sun;
Who, as a bridegroom, cometh out of his chamber;
He rejoiceth as a strong man to run a race.
And in Isai. xli. 15, 16, we have a still bolder
image, where Israel is promised the victory over
its enemies, in the following language:

Behold, I have made thee a threshing wain;
A new corn-drag armed with pointed teeth:
Thou shalt thresh the mountains, and beat them
small,

And reduce the hills to chaff.

such a sense is the proper, the real, or the grammatical sense. For it is to be observed, that in so construing the language, we are no more at liberty to attach to it an arbitrary sense, than if there were nothing tropical in it; and there is, therefore, no uncertainty attending its meaning. It is the peculiar design of the figurative style, to exhibit objects in a clearer or more striking, in a sublimer or more forcible, manner; and it is plain, that this object could not be attained, unless there were an obvious resemblance or analogy subsisting between the object itself, and that whence the figure which is employed for its representation is derived; and it is by tracing these analogies that

Thou shalt winnow them, and the wind shall bear the meaning of the words is to be fixed. them away,

And the tempest shall scatter them abroad.

And how sublimely has the Psalmist delineated the Divine majesty and power, as exemplified in the constitution of nature, in Ps. civ.—

Thou art invested with majesty and glory,
Covering thyself with light as with a garment;

* Ammon, in his note upon this section of Ernesti, says, the necessity for departing from the literal sense can hardly be fxed by rules. "The following, however, would come nearer the truth: not to depart from the literal sense, unless in cases where the literal sense is tume, ridiculous, or contradictory." Lather anticipated this canon, when he asserted that "no trope is to be admitted into Scripture, unless the context manifestly requires it, or the literal sense be manifestly absurd, and repagnant to some article of faith," Opp. T. III., Latin, Jena, f. 195.

(4) It must be admitted, however, that there are some passages in the sacred writings, relating to the Divine Being, to the future state of the righteous and the wicked, and to one or two subjects of a like description, the signification of which it is extremely difficult to ascertain with certainty. The reason of this may be easily perceived; the subjects treated of are such as cannot be subjected to the examination of our senses; and we have, therefore, no criteria by which to judge of their real qualities or attributes. But in such cases, what is to be done? How are we to determine between the claims of conflicting opinions? Here, analogy will be found to be the only guide; and none but those who are intimately acquainted with the contents of Scripture, and have imbibed

words employed to predicate their several actions, is incongruous with them, and therefore, that they must be figurative or tropical expressions.*

much of the spirit by which it is pervaded, are | we easily perceive that the literal meaning of the competent to determine these nice and delicate points. The subjects are far removed from that grossness of perception which characterizes the carnal mind; and no language that could have been employed would bring them within the grasp of the natural man.

(5) But then we must be careful not to reject the literal sense of a passage, and adopt a figurative sense, upon a partial or imperfect view of its meaning; because, in such a case, we may conceive that there is a repugnance of things, where no such repugnance exists. This mode of proceeding has been the fruitful source of much and pernicious error among certain classes of religionists. Instead of gathering the sense of Scripture from the sacred writers themselves, according to the ordinary modes pursued in reading other literary works, these persons usually imbibe certain notions from other and independent sources, and then, wherever a literal interpretation of the words of Scripture would contradict such notions, resort is had to a figurative exposition. This is "wresting the Scriptures."

(6) To determine at once, whether a word is to be taken tropically or not, Ernesti suggests that we should examine the object spoken of, either by the external or the internal senses, or by renewing the perception of the object; and it cannot be doubted, that, where the object spoken of is such as may be examined by the senses, the decision may be easily made. Thus, when in the passage already cited, Israel is said to be a 'threshing wain," and in others, when our Saviour is said to be a "door," and a "vine," we easily perceive, by comparing the objects spoken of with our senses, that to construe the words literally involves an impossibility. So also in the following passages :—

Let the Heavens rejoice, and the Earth be glad; And let them proclaim through the nations, Jehovah reigneth.

1 Chron. xvi. 31.

Let the Floods clap their hands;
Let the Mountains break forth into harmony.

Ps. xcviii. 8.

The Waters saw thee, O God!

III. For the interpretation of the figurative language of Scripture, a great number of precepts have been framed; and the most popular work in our language (Horne's Introduction) which treats on the interpretation of the Bible, presents us with thirteen rules, on this subject, independent of six-and-twenty additional rules, which are applied to the interpretation of the different kinds of figures; thus making, in the whole, no fewer than thirty-nine distinct and independent maxims, which are said to demand our attention, when interpreting the figurative language of the Bible! This is most injudicious. If persons will but exercise their understandings when they read the Bible, in the same manner as they do when any other book engages their thoughts, these numerous rules will be unnecessary; and if they will not do so, all rules will be useless.+

We shall, in a subsequent section, give such directions for the detection and interpretation of tropes, as we deem to be necessary. We could not avoid the incidental discussion of them here.

SECTION VII.

SCRIPTURE PARALLELISMS.

Value of Parallel Passages as a Source of Direct Testimony to the Meaning of Words-Verbal Parallelisms--Real Parallelisms-Rules for Comparing Parallel Passages-The Rythmnical Parallelism; Various Descriptions of this; Assistance derivable from it in the Art of Interpretation - Common References another aid to Interpretation-Examples.

I. That a careful and diligent comparison of parallel passages is a most efficient aid to the right understanding of Scripture, all who have made

The rule usually laid down in such cases, is, that those words or phrases are tropical where the subject and predicate disagree; as where corporeal and incorporeal, animate and inanimate, rational and irrational, are conjoined; and also species of a different genus. Things that cannot possibly exist in any particular subject (as above), cannot be logically predicated of it; for the fundamental rules of logic, in respect to this, are inherent in the human mind. If, then, such things appear

The Waters saw thee, they were grievously troubled. to be predicated, the phrase must be tropically understood.

The Deep uttered his voice;
And lifted up his hands on high.

Ps. lxxvii. 16.

Hab. iii. 10.

In each of these cases, by renewing the perception of the objects, as the heavens, the earth, the floods, the waters, the mountains, the deep,

See Stuart's Elements, p. 111. See, also, Jahn, Enchiridion,

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the experiment well know. The doctrinal parts | hensions. He may safely remain ignorant of all of the Bible, especially, will be the most satis- history, except so much of the first ages of the factorily explained and illustrated, "not in words Jewish and of the Christian church as is to be which man's wisdom teacheth, but which the gathered from the canonical books of the Old and Holy Ghost teacheth, comparing spiritual things New Testaments. Let him study those in the with spiritual." To the utility of this practice we manner I recommend, and let him never cease to have the testimony of persons of acknowledged pray for the illumination of that Spirit by whom eminence as biblical writers. "He is the best these books were dictated, and the whole compass reader," says Hilary," who interprets sayings by of abstruse philosophy and recondite history shall sayings, who brings not an interpretation to Scrip- furnish no argument with which the perverse will ture, nor imposeth a sense upon Scripture, but of man shall be able to shake this learned ChrisEndeth a sense in Scripture, and draws it from tian's faith. The Bible, thus studied, will indeed Scripture."*"If the economy of nature," said prove to be, what we Protestants esteem it—a an ingenious writer, "is not to be learned from a certain and sufficient rule of faith and practice; a transient inspection of the heavens and the earth, helmet of salvation, which alone may quench the and if the ground will not yield its strength but fiery darts of the wicked."‡ to those who diligently turn it up and cultivate it, who can imagine that the wisdom of God's word can be discovered at first sight by every common reader? Nature must be compared with itself, and the Scripture must be compared with itself, by those who would understand either the one or the other."+"It should be a rule with every one," says Bishop Horsley," who would read the Holy Scriptures with advantage and improvement, to compare every text, which may seem either important for the doctrine it may contain, or remarkable for the turn of the expression, with the parallel passages in other parts of holy writ; that is, with the passages in which the subjectmatter is the same, the sense equivalent, or the turn of the expression similar.”—“It is incredible to any one who has not in some degree made the experiment, what a proficiency may be made in that knowledge which maketh wise unto salvation, by studying the Scriptures in this manner, without any other commentary or exposition than what the different parts of the sacred volume mutually furnish for each other. I will not scruple to assert, that the most illiterate Christian, if he can but read his English Bible, and will take the pains to read it in this manner, will not only attain all that practical knowledge which is necessary to his salvation; but, by God's blessing, he will become learned in every thing relating to his religion in such a degree, that he will not be liable to be misled, either by the refined arguents or the false assertions of those who en

II. Parallelisms have been divided into real and verbal. The former embrace the matter of doctrine and history; the latter regard words and phrases, modes of arguing, figures, and style. They are further divided into adequate and inadequate: adequate, when they affect the whole subject proposed in the text; inadequate, when they affect it only in part: the former of these are of course the more important, but the latter should not be undervalued.||

deavour to ingraft their own opinions upon the oracles of God. He may safely be ignorant of all philosophy, except what is to be learned from the sacred books; which, indeed, contain the Lighest philosophy, adapted to the lowest appre

P. 2.

1. THE VERBAL PARALLELISM. It not unfrequently happens, as will be seen from the remarks already offered, that the meaning of words is sometimes ambiguous or doubtful; neither the subject nor the context affords the means of determining the sense. Now it is evident, that in such a case, another passage in which the same word or its synonyme is introduced, accompanied by those attributes by which it may be defined, will furnish a verbal parallelism of the utmost value for fixing the sense of the doubtful word or phrase. Thus, in Rom. xvi. 25, the apostle speaks of "the mystery which was kept secret since the world began," without enabling us, by any subjoined remark, to understand the precise sense to be attached to the phraseology. But if we refer to Eph. i. 9, 10, iii. 4, 5, and Col. i. 27, it will be rendered manifest, that it means the admission of the Gentiles to the privileges of the church and people of God, without subjecting them to the

Nine Sermons, pp. 121-128.

Gerard, in his Institutes of Biblical Criticism, divides Parallels into the following classes: (1) Passages in which, either with or without a quotation, the same thing is said in the same or nearly the same words; as, Exod. xx. 2-17 is parallel to Deut. v. 6-18. The comparison of such texts often serves to correct a false reading. (2) Passages which relate the same subject in different terms. (3) Passages in which the same terms or expressions are used, in speaking of different things. Jones' Lectures on the Figurative Language of Scripture, (4) Passages which treat of the same subject in different ex

* De Trin. lib. 1.

pressions.

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