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SECTION II.

HISTORY OF BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION.

Primitive Hebrew Interpreters-Vicious Modes of Interpretation-Early Christian Interpreters - Allegorical and Scholastic Systems of Interpretation-Revival of Biblical Learning

--Hermeneutical Writers.

THE interpretation of the books of the Old Testament, in its highest antiquity, has not been the same in every age; and its history, both among Jews and Christians, is worthy of attention.

1. From the origin of the Hebrew state down to the time of its destruction, the sacred books required little interpretation: the language in which they were written was, during all this space of time, vernacular to the Israelites, and underwent only slight changes. If, then, any explanation was required, it was only in reference to the duties prescribed by the Mosaic law. The first interpreters of the sacred books may therefore be said to have been the Levites and the Prophets; for they, by the very Mosaic constitution, were the authorised directors and administrators of the external worship of God, and the interpreters and teachers of the divine laws, both sacred and civil, to the people, Deut. xxxiii. 10. They promoted the internal worship and the sincere veneration of the one God, and prompt obedience to his laws; and they inculcated the love of true piety and virtue, agreeably to the object of the Mosaic constitution, on their countrymen. From the time of Samuel downwards, therefore, they had schools in which the youth were formed to those noble sentiments, and in which, with the same view, the Scriptures were read and explained.

2. Although, previous to their exile to Babylon, the Israelites had among them persons who, from the nature of their office, applied themselves to the understanding of the Mosaic books, and to explaining them in the manner suited to the wants of the time; yet, by the greater part of the community, the study of these and the other sacred books was in general little heeded: for the Israelites universally showed a great propensity to the worship of idols and false gods at all times; until, by the condign punishment of their perverseness, in the destruction of their state and subsequent exile, they were brought to a better mind.

3. When the Jews, after their return home, began to devote themselves with much greater care than ever they had done before to their religion, and in consequence to the study of those books in which it was contained; the more distant they were from that age in which particularly the more ancient of these books were composed; and the more the language of their fathers had become depraved among them; so much the more every

day did the necessity of having them explained to them become greater. But, growing more and more adverse to all foreign religions, they by degrees fell into the basest superstition, and thus became attached to those modes of interpretation which are particularly pleasing to men who are superstitious, devoted to trifles, and narrow-minded. Before the time of our Saviour, there had, in consequence, long prevailed a trifling and subtle mode of explaining the Old Testament, which, servilely adhering to the words, altogether departed from the true meaning, of the text, a mode which was followed by most of the doctors of the Pharisaical sect, particularly in interpreting the laws of Moses contrary to their spirit, and the divine intention in enacting them.

4. But, at the same time, there were not a few who followed a quite opposite plan, and paid no attention to the proper and common meaning of the words, but superinduced on the Scriptures a remote and figurative or allegorical signification, with the view of extracting from them the tenets of a foreign philosophy. The most indefatigable in this absurd manner of interpretation was Philo-Judæus, who was so carried away by his attachment to the Platonic philosophy, as to exhibit it veiled and wrapped up in the doctrines, precepts, and even in the historical details of his religion.

5. From the time of Alexander the Great, there evidently prevailed among the Jews who lived in Egypt a most silly mode of interpretation, deriving its origin from the allegorical method of the secret philosophers of the Egyptians, which in the course of time propagated itself more extensively. Out of the words and letters themselves, and their order and transposition, they extracted a hidden sense, and doctrines full of mystery: and this manner of interpretation, which was thought to recommend the traditions received from their ancestors by the additional authority of sanctity and of divine origin, came at last to be termed cabalistical, from the word p, which signifies "to receive."

6. When, however, from the tenth century after Christ, the study of Hebrew grammar came to be cultivated among the Jews, there were some who attempted to explain either the whole of the Old Testament, or some of its parts, in the grammatical manner; of whom the principal were Aben Ezra, Jarchi, Maimonides, David Kimchi, and Isaac Abarbanel. On the criticism, also, of their sacred writings, some Jews bestowed no little labour. The study of some sort of criticism seems even to have existed among them previous to the third century of our era. It was confined, however, almost wholly to things of very trifling importance, agreeably to the turn of mind of their nation, and was employed about mere minutiæ,

such as the accurate computation of the number | some pains in interpreting the Bible, and also first of words in each of the books of the sacred treated of the mode in which the sacred books volume; nay, it was even partly conjoined with their cabalistic pursuits, as certain astonishing mysteries were attempted to be discovered in the uncommon mode of writing some letters, or in an unusual manner of punctuation.

7. Some interpretations, or Versions, as we call them, were made by the Jews; of which some were into Greek, for the use of those of their countrymen who could read Greek more easily than Hebrew, or who were quite ignorant of the Hebrew language; others were into Chaldee, intended for the use of those who had been accustomed to the Chaldee language, and with whom the language of their ancestors had fallen into disuse. Of these Versions, some are full of allegorical and cabalistical fables.

8. Our Saviour quite disapproved of the perverted mode of interpretation adopted by the' Jews of his time, as appears from Matt. xv. 1-14: but, however, both he and his apostles, in quoting the sacred Scriptures, and making use of them for their own purposes, sometimes accommodated themselves to the received manner of the time; and Paul in particular, with a prudence deserving of much praise, occasionally adopted the allegorical mode.

9. By far the greater part of the succeeding Christian teachers, up to the age of Constantine the Great, were quite devoted to this allegorical mode of interpretation, and employed it almost solely in their disputations. The most celebrated during this period of time were, Ephraim Syrus among the Orientals, Clemens Alexandrinus and Origen among the Greeks, and Jerome among the Latins. The Greek doctors were indeed more particularly delighted with the allegorical method; to which both Clemens, although the most learned of the Fathers, as they are called, and even Origen himself, how much soever in other respects he contributed to assist in the right interpretation of the Scriptures, by those stupendous critical labours which he underwent, were strongly attached. This last (Origen) found a most celebrated imitator of his critical labours in Jerome, who devoted his great learning and industry to the criticism and interpretation, with a Latin Version, of the Old Testament. Before the end, however, of this period, some Versions of the Old Testament were first executed by the Christians, such as the Syriac and the Latin Italic, which preceded that of Jerome.

10. About the end of the fourth and the beginning of the fifth century, flourished Augustine, celebrated among the Latins more on account of his genius than his learning, who has bestowed

were to be explained, in his writings on Christian doctrine: for we can scarcely reckon as belonging to this subject what Jerome says, in his epistle to Sammacheus, respecting the best manner of interpreting, in which he only details the method which he himself followed; neither can we consider as belonging to it the Greek epistle of Isiodorus the Pellusiote, the noblest of Chrysostom's disciples, who lived in the fifth century; which, although they may be said to be on the interpretation of the sacred volume, yet only treat of those passages which are to be found in the Scriptures applicable to teaching us to guide our lives aright. But connected with this subject, certainly, is the Introduction to the Divine Scriptures (siraywyn εις τας θείας γραφας) of Adrian, who lived in the same century.

11. After the fifth century, the state of the interpretation of the sacred text became more and more wretched; and this continued to go on till the fifteenth century; so that at first very few, and finally none, existed, who contributed any thing to the right interpretation of the whole Scripture, but particularly to that of the Old Testament.

12. In the twelfth century, the scholastic theology, which originated in the perverse use of the Aristotelian philosophy, arose, or certainly from that period very greatly prevailed, and for a considerable time afterwards was firmly established ; the consequence was, that those who delighted in it, argued with minute and often absurd subtlety on religion, while they never once thought of interpreting the Scriptures.* Those, again, who were opposed to them, and were distinguished by the title of Biblical Doctors, by their mystical and allegorical interpretations rather darkened than illustrated the sacred books; and these by degrees became much diminished in number.

13. The universities, which in the same twelfth century were founded in Europe, and in which the learned languages, and also the Oriental dialects were taught, at first produced no change in the interpretation of the Scriptures. The expeditions into Asia, called the crusades, begun in the former century, and continued long afterwards, had taken off the minds of most men from any sort of study of the sacred volume; but being the cause why a vast number of Greeks left their native country, and migrated into Italy and other European countries, these excited a love of literature in various parts of Europe; and the pursuit of learning, by degrees reviving through means of the instituted

* The student will do well to read Bishop Marsh's twelfth Lecture on this subject.

universities, aided, and began to prepare the way for, a better interpretation of the sacred code. 14. In the second century, therefore, before the Reformation, Nicolaus Lyranus became celebrated as an interpreter of Scripture. To him Luther is very much indebted. But the art of printing, which was invented in the fifteenth century, was the most powerful means of disseminating, quickly and extensively, those sounder views which were afterwards entertained regarding Scripture criticism. But as the reviving love of learning, and the daily increasing study of doctrines, hastened and most happily assisted the reformation of religion, there was thus generated a greater liberty, and a much more correct method of interpretation. In the sixteenth century, then, when a clear light shone upon religion, which had been so much obscured, the two men who were the principal leaders of the Reformation, Luther and Calvin, expended much labour in translating and explaining even the books of the Old Testament, if we think of their time, and the aids which they possessed. Erasmus, too, who did not dare to embrace their party, although he mightily contributed to the reformation of religion, has merited immortal praise by what he has done in aid of the better interpretation of the books of the New Testament. He, however, did not expend any labour in elucidating the books of the Old Testa

ment.

15. As the reformers of religion were accustomed to defend their cause by arguments taken from the Scriptures, they bestowed much pains on the right interpretation of the sacred volume, and imposed even upon their adversaries a necessity of some application to the same study. But from the continual disputations on both sides originated, by degrees, a polemical mode of interpreting and explaining the sacred books, which for some time prevailed, by which every one endeavoured to prove the opinions of his own party from the Scriptures, and not unfrequently to ascribe to the sacred writers opinions with which they were quite unacquainted, and opposed to their plain meaning.

16. The sixteenth century was rendered illustrious by a conjointed edition of some ancient Versions of the whole sacred code, which had been made at various times, both by the Jews and Christians. In this the Catholics merited great praise; for, through their care, the Complutensian and Antwerp Polyglott Bibles, very excellent editions, were brought out; and one of them, Flaminius Nobilis, was the first who in this century endeavoured to collect and edite the fragments of the ancient Greek interpreters. The Polyglott Bibles, which in this century were edited

by the Protestants, did not attain to the same degree of celebrity; but John Drusius, who was | much esteemed among the reformed churches, for his great learning, enlarged greatly the remains of those ancient interpreters.

17. In the same age, Sixtus Senensis, by the publication of his Bibliotheca Sancta, in which he, among other things, explained the art of expounding the Scriptures, seems to have gained no small praise to the Romish body. But far superior to him was Mathias Flacius Illyricus among the Lutherans, who, in his Clavis Scripturæ Sacræ, first showed the true method of interpreting Scripture, as far as it could be investigated and exhibited to others at that time.

18. The study of the Scriptures was much increased during the seventeenth century; for, besides some ancient Versions, or parts of them, which were edited separately, a more enlarged edition of the Polyglott Bible was published at Paris, and afterwards a still more perfect one at London. Some besides, and among them even the Papists themselves, laboured to illustrate either all the books of the Old Testament, or particular books or passages. Others were solicitous to explain the history and other events of the Old Testament. Others attained high praise by their cultivation of the Oriental languages; such, for instance, as Erpenius and Golius; while Cocceius exhibited singular skill in the Hebrew language and idiom. Others began to apply to the criticism of the Old Testament with a noble boldness; such as Ludovicus Capellus of the reformed body, and Richard Simon among the Papists; both of whom appeared to the men of their own time too free in their views. And, not to mention more who published books connected with sacred hermeneutics, Solomon Glassius in this century particularly distinguished himself, whose book on sacred philology has long been esteemed a standard work, and even in our age is very valuable. The glory, however, of this age was Grotius, who yet holds, and long will possess, the chief place among the interpreters of the New Testament; and no common praise is due to him for his annotations on the Old Testament, which, however, would have been much higher, had he bestowed the same labour on the Old as he did on the New Testament.

19. From the seventeenth century down to our age, the interpretation of the Scriptures has very greatly advanced, particularly among those who had happily delivered themselves from the longworn shackles of the ancient superstition. The true way of studying the Hebrew language, by making use of the light to be derived from the · Oriental languages, was first discovered by Albert

Schultens, who himself gained a high reputation by his interpretations of the Old Testament. And there were not a few who employed themselves with honour in the explication of the words, and of the whole Hebrew phraseology, and particularly of the poetic diction.

20. In the astonishing number of interpreters produced in later times, it was not possible that there should not have been a great diversity of method adopted by very many of them, according to the diversity of their times and genius. Among the Catholics, although freedom of interpretation was restrained by the stricter limits in which they were confined by their religion, in consequence of which they were prevented from proceeding freely in this work, yet there were to be found even among them some who distinguished themselves in this department; such as Augustin Calmet, about the beginning of the eighteenth century, much celebrated both for his Commentary on the sacred code, and also for his Dictionary of the Bible; and another in the middle of the same century, less commonly known, but remarkable for his varied erudition-Alexius Symmachus Mazochius, who in his Spicilegium Biblicum (Biblical Gleanings), which was confined to the Old Testament, seems fully to merit the praise of a learned and ingenious interpreter. Among those, again, from whose minds the reformation of religion had shaken off the yoke of servitude, this happy change only in the slow progress of time exerted all that power which it might and certainly ought to have had. Even in the beginning, therefore, of the eighteenth century, and for some time afterwards, there were very many who delighted in allegorical and mystical interpretations of Scripture; and not a few who were rather controversial theologians than interpreters. But a sounder mode of interpretation began to prevail more and more every day, and it, alone, by degrees became approved by the lovers of genuine liberty; a mode which, employing the necessary aids, not only endeavoured to discover the meaning of the writers from the idiom of the language which they used, but likewise illustrated and confirmed the meaning thus discovered, from the genius of the age in which they lived, and from their manners, circumstances, and design in writing; and, consequently, never sought to discover in them any thing but what could be shown with probability to have been in their minds.

21. But the liberty of interpretation came at last to be shamefully abused by some, and degenerated, through the proneness of mankind to rush into extremes, into the most unrestrained licentiousness. According to the most recent canons of this class of interpreters, we ought to admit nothing in

the sacred volume to be true that is not ag.eeable to the common order of things; and, contornably to these canons, whatever is related in Scripture as different from that order, must all be explained by the interpreter in a manner consistent with it: so that what would deservedly be accounted unallowable with regard to the profane writers of antiquity, is not only allowed to the most ancient sacred books, but is even reckoned laudable. And there are not wanting persons in our times, who twist to a moral purpose whatever may tend to give offence in these books, being no way solicitous regarding the most natural or plain sense of the words.

22. In fine: During that space of time of which we have just been speaking, many books were published which treated of the method of interpreting the whole sacred volume. Some of these, however, confined themselves solely to the critical part, while others, under the name of Introductions, embraced all those things which might be reckoned to pertain to the understanding of the contents, the authors, the composition, and the ancient Versions of the whole of the Scriptures, and of each of its parts. Of the first sort, the most excellent are, Turretin's Tract on the Interpretation of Scripture, Seiler on Biblical Hermeneutics, and Meyer's Attempt at the Interpretation of the Old Testament.* Of the latter sort, it will be sufficient to mention Carpzovius' Introduction to the Canonical Books of the Old Testament, J. G. Eichhorn's Introduction to the Books of the Old Testament, Jahn's Introduction, Bertholdt's Historico-critical Introduction to all the Canonical and Apocryphal Books of the Old and New Testaments, and Hug's Introduction to the New Têstament. To these, which are all in foreign languages excepting Hug, translated by Dr. Wait, we may add such compendiums as Harword's Introduction to the New Testament, Marsh's Lectures on Biblical Criticism and Interpretation, Gerard's Institutes of Biblical Criticism, Horne's Critical Introduction, &c., &c.‡

* The celebrated John Augustus Ernesti, of Leipsic, was the

first writer who established the grammatico-historical method of Nov. Test.," in which he was followed by the acute and judicious interpretation on a scientific basis, in his "Institutio Interpretis

Morus, and the learned but neological Ammon.

Pareau's Principles of Interpretation of the Old Testament, Introduction.

For a more particular and minute history of sacred hermeneutics, the reader may consult Bishop Marsh's eleventh and twelfth lectures; Planck's Sacred Philology, part ii., chap. v. ; and Ernesti's Institutes, part iii., chap. ix. ; in the Biblical Cabinet, vols. ii. and vii.; and Seiler's Biblical Hermeneutics, translated by Dr. Wright, pp. 1–22.

SECTION III.

OF THE SCRIPTURES.

depravation of our will and affections, for his serMORAL QUALITIES REQUISITE IN AN INTERPRETER vice and presence, he might have justly abandoned us to the imaginings of our own hearts, destitute of the guidance of any further light from himself. In that case, how deplorable must have been our moral condition! Cut off from Godunder the dominion of the powers of darknessfollowing the dictates of depraved affections, and subjected to the control of fierce and turbulent passions-we could only have proceeded from one stage of depravity and wretchedness to another, until we should have found ourselves placed beyond the reach of even the Divine compassion itself. But the day-spring from on high has visited us;" the light of His truth has pierced through the gloom with which we were surrounded-" they who sat in darkness, and in the region of the shadow of death, have seen a great light;" and in the midst of our rebellion, we are arrested by the voice of God, in accents the most tender and merciful—“ Unto you, O men, I call; and my voice is to the sons of men," Prov. viii. 4. “How long, ye simple ones, will ye love simplicity? and the scorners delight in their scorning, and fools hate knowledge? Turn you at my reproof: behold, I will pour out my Spirit upon you, I will make known my words unto you,” ch. i. 22, 23. Now, if the mere fact of a Divine revelation, intended to benefit our condition, be sufficient to excite our gratitude, and inspire us with reverential feeling, our obligations will appear to be greatly augmented, when we consider the merciful character which it assumes in the Bible.

The State of Mind required in a Student of the Bible: Gratitude for the Fact and Character of Divine Revelation-Humility -Devout Prayer-Ingenuousness and Decision of Purpose. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the moral qualifications of an interpreter of Scripture are of the first importance, and demand the most serious regard. Every person well knows that facts and circumstances take a high degree of colouring from the state of mind through which they are viewed; and that the particular impression they make is in a great measure dependant upon the disposition and habits of the recipient. That there can be no correct apprehension of moral truth, unless there be an unprejudiced and teachable frame of mind, most persons will admit. If a man be not convinced of his want of information, and be not animated by an upright intention of submitting without reserve to the discoveries of truth, however opposed to his previous sentiments and pursuits they may be, it is not to be expected that the clearest statement or the most conclusive reasoning will exert any beneficial influence upon his mind. But if this be true in the ordinary affairs of human life, it is much more so in the acquisition of scriptural knowledge. The stream of revealed truth runs in an opposite direction to the current of our fallen nature. Nor is this the greatest evil; the human mind is as destitute of ability rightly to apprehend the revealed will and purposes of God, as the human heart is opposed to their authority and control. "The natural man receiveth not the things of the Spirit of God, for they are foolishness unto him; neither can he know them, because they are spiritually discerned," 1 Cor. ii. 14. Hence arises the necessity of a preparation of heart to seek after God (1 Sam. vii. 3, &c.), by a cultivation of those dispositions which accord as well with the divine communications, as with our own relative and responsible character. The state of mind, constituting these moral qualifications, may be resolved into the following particulars. I. DEVOUT GRATITUDE FOR THE FACT AND CHA

RACTER OF THE DIVINE REVELATION.

2. Let it be observed, then, that it is in the Holy Scriptures, only, that we have rational and influential discoveries of the character of God. In proof of this position, we need only refer to the state of opinion in those parts of the world where the light of revelation has not yet beamed, or where it has been quenched by the opposition of sin. Amidst all the speculations of philosophy, for which Greece and Rome were renowned, at what certainty did their most celebrated philosophers arrive, even on the simple but momentous fact of the existence of an intelligent First Cause? Doubt and indecision marked the conclusions of their profoundest investigations, and reduced them to the rank of the merest probabilities.* With

1. If we have any thing like just conceptions of the high and holy character of God, and of our own debased and abject condition, we shall not fail to approach the volume of inspiration with sentiEents of profound gratitude to HIM for having favoured us, in such circumstances, with any communications of his will; but especially so, for the character and design of those communications which are presented to us in the Bible. Separated understanding its wonderful and blessed contents, sets the from the Author of our being by a course of sin-humblest Christian among us above the most enlightened heathen fal disobedience, and totally incapacitated, by the philosopher, in the true knowledge of the true God.

* "The possession of the Bible alone," said the amiable Montgomery, in a speech delivered before the Philosophical cluding treasures of history, jurisprudence, poetry, and ethics, Society of Sheffield-"The possession of the Bible alone-incapable above all other books of informing, expanding, delighting, and exalting the mind, while the heart is purified,-the possession of the Bible alone, with the power of reading and

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