SECTION 8.-Subsidiary Means of Discovering the Signification of Words.--Direct Testimony to the Signifi- Passage-Analogy of Scripture-Emphasis; Means for Detecting Emphasis Sense of Words-Means of detecting Tropical Expressions-Rules for interpreting Tropes-Examples SECTION 10.-Poetry of the Sacred Writings.-Various Theories of Hebrew Rhythm and Versification-The Lyric and the Epic Poetry of the Hebrews-Object of the Art of Poetry-The Rhythmical Parallelism—The SECTION 11.-Interpretation of Symbolical Language.-The Nature of Symbolical Language-Erroneous SECTION 12.-Types and Secondary Senses.-The Doctrine of Types-Fanciful Interpretations-Definition of and his Apostles-Its Extent-Analogical and Moral Application of Scripture 123 CHAP. I.-THE MEDIA OF DIVINE REVELATION. Genuineness and General Authenticity-Character and Claims of the Bible CHAP. II. THE OBJECT OF DIVINE REVELATION. The Necessity for a Divine Revelation Stated-The great Objects of Revelation-The Harmony subsisting amongst the various Portions of Revelation-The Law Introductory and Preparatory of the Gospel-Divine Revelation Gradually developed-Its Congeniality with the Nature and Destinies of Man SECTION 3.-Ceremonial Observances.-The Jewish Ritual-Objects and Uses of the Ceremonial Law- SECTION 4.-Sacred Places.-The Land of Canaan-The Tabernacle-The Temples of Solomon, Zerubbabel, SECTION 5.-Ministers of the Jewish Sanctuary.-The High-priest-The superior Officers of the Temple- The ordinary Priests-The Levites-The Nethinim and Stationary Men SECTION 6.-Sacrifices and Oblations.-The Origin of Sacrifices-The Victims to be offered-The several Divisions of Time: Days; Weeks; Months; Years-The Computation of Time-General Chronology— Chronological Tables: Hebrew Cycles; the most Remarkable Eras; Empires, States, and Sovereigns con- nected with Sacred History; Sacred and Profane History; The Asmonean and Idumæan Princes SECTION 1.-Forms of Government.-Patriarchal-Democratical-The Hebrew Commonwealth--Tributary SECTION 2.-Jurisprudence, and Forms of Legal Procedure.-Perfection of the Jewish Law-Courts of Judi- -The Criminal Law of the Hebrews-The Civil Law-Modes of Punishment, and the Treatment of Prisoners SECTION 3.-Military Affairs.-The whole Hebrew Nation liable to be called to Arms-Exemptions from Mili- SECTION 4.-Tribute and Money.-Under Moses-After the Captivity-The Publicans CHAP. IV.-HISTORICAL AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. SECTION 1.-The Holy Land.-Names-Situation and Limits-Inhabitants-Divisions-Face of the Country: Rivers; Mountains; Valleys; Plains; Deserts-Atmosphere and other Phenomena: Climate; Rains; Winds; Tornadoes, &c.-Fruitfulness of the Country SECTION 2.-Countries beyond Judea, mentioned in Scripture.-ASIA: Arabia; Armenia; Assyria; Asia Minor; Chaldea; Media; Mesopotamia; Parthia; Persia; Phænicia; Syria.-EUROPE: Greece; Illyricum; SECTION 3.-Provinces, Cities, and Towns, mentioned in Scripture, alphabetically arranged CHAP. I.-ASTROGRAPHY AND METEOROLOGY. Astronomy.-Scantiness of Biblical Information-Knowledge of Astronomy possessed by the ancient Hebrews-Astrology.-Meteorology-Its Objects-The Seasons of the Hebrews Importance of the Science, in its relation to the Bible-Mosaic Narrative of the Creation-Conformity of Modern Philosophy with the Hebrew Cosmogony-The Deluge attested by Modern Discoveries-The Age of Scientific Arrangements in the Scriptures-Herbaceous Productions-Corn; its Uses and Preparation-- PART VI.—BIBLICAL ARTS, SCIENCES, AND DOMESTIC USAGES. State of the Arts amongst the Antediluvians-Under Moses, and in the later periods of the Hebrew Com- SECTION 1.-Writings and Books.-Origin of Writing-Materials and Forms of Books-Illustrations of SECTION 2.-Engraving, Sculpture, and Painting.-Early Origin of Engraving-Signets, and their Uses- SECTION 3.-Architecture.-Tents-Villages-Houses-Furniture-Ships SECTION 4.-Music.-Antiquity of the Art-Civil and Sacred Music-Instruments of Music mentioned in the Bible-Various kinds of the Harp, &c.-The Levites SECTION 5.-Medicine and Chirurgery.-Physicians amongst the Hebrews-Modes of Treating the Sick- Diseases mentioned in Scripture SECTION 6.—Agriculture.—Importance and Value of Agriculture-Mosaic Regulations for pursuing it— paring of Corn-Vines and Vineyards-The Vintage-Various Descriptions of Gardens-The Fallow or CHAP. II.-PHILOSOPHY AND PRACTICAL SCIENCE. Errors relative to the Learning of the Hebrews-Teachers of Religion-Philosophy of the Hebrews-Wise Men, or Teachers-State of the Sciences among the Hebrews SECTION 1.-Arithmetic, Mathematics, and Astrology SECTION 2.-Geography.-Limited Extent of Geographical Knowledge among the Hebrews-Cosmological SECTION 1.-Clothing and Personal Ornaments.-Materials used for Clothing-Coloured Cloths-Various the Eyes-Treatment of the Hair and Beard-Phylacteries-Nose-rings and Earrings-Bracelets, &c. Marriages contracted at an Early Age-Marriage Ceremonies-Public Processions-Nuptial Entertainments- The Parable of the Ten Virgins Illustrated-Polygamy-Divorce-The Support of Widows-Laws Relative to Marriage-Treatment of Children; Birth; Circumcision; Religious Instruction; Trades; The First-born; SECTION 3.-Modes of Travelling.-Travelling Provisions-Hospitality shown to Travellers-Eastern Cara- vans-Illustration of the Exodus-Preparations for the Journeyings of Eastern Monarchs SECTION 4.-Funereal Rites.-Jewish Notion of Death-Embalming-Public Mourning-Coffins, or Biers- Funeral Entertainments-Jewish Cemeteries-Jewish Notions of a Future State SECTION 5.-Domestic Economy and Repasts.-Bread-Wines-Milk-Butter-Butter-milk, &c.-Meals and riors-Manner of conducting Visits-Marks of Honour-Presentation of Raiment-Marks of Disgrace-Cutting the Beard-Clapping the Hands and Hissing-Refusing the Rites of Sepulture-Disinterment of the Dead SECTION 7.-Commerce.-Early Commerce-Caravans-Commerce of the Phoenicians-Arabian Merchants- Commerce of the Hebrews-Exchange or Barter-Money-Measures of Capacity and Length mentioned in CHAP. IV-CUSTOMS FOREIGN TO THE HEBREWS. SECTION 1.-The Theatre and the Drama.-Theatrical Exhibitions not adopted by the Hebrews--Scripture Allusions to the Drama-Allusions to Combats in the Amphitheatre 574 SECTION 2.-The Grecian Games.-Various Exercises in the Olympic Games-The Candidates-Preparatory Discipline-Introduction into the Stadium-The Foot-race-Boxing-Manner of Contending-Rewards of the Victors-Record of the Victors-Allusions to these Games in the New Testament SECTION 3.-Philosophical Sects.-The Stoics and the Epicureans THE BIBLICAL COMPANION. PART I. BIBLICAL LITERATURE. CHAPTER I. THE REVIVAL AND PROGRESS OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. Revival of Biblical Learning in the Fifteenth Century-Impetus | gians, who by a perverse use of the Aristotelian given to Sacred Literature in the Last Century-Philological philosophy reduced the doctrines of religion to a and Illustrative Writers-Present state of Biblica! Learning -Character of Works on Biblical Interpretation-Advantages derivable from Biblical Studies-Divisions of Biblical Learning-Object and Plan of the present Work. number of absurd subtleties, incomprehensible by all minds-not excepting their own; and the biblical doctors, who by a system of mystical and allegorical interpretation perverted and darkened the sublime truths of Scripture, and rendered their 1. THE progress of sacred literature in modern times furnishes a topic of gratifying and instructive inquiry, and is fraught with considerations emi-meaning a matter of doubt and uncertainty. The nently calculated to excite the gratitude and strengthen the convictions of the Christian student. A few remarks upon this subject will therefore appropriately introduce the various scriptural topics described and treated of in the present volume. insane religious wars called the crusades were not without their use, being overruled by Providence to the most beneficial purposes. By introducing into Europe a number of learned Greeks, they originated a spirit of inquiry in Italy and elsewhere; while the universities that were shortly afterwards established, and in which the oriental languages were cultivated, tended greatly to the revival of learning, and prepared the way for an improved system of interpretation for the sacred volume. 2. From the fifth to the fifteenth century, biblical learning was in a deplorably low state. Religious feuds were the curse and disgrace of Christendom. Bitter controversies touching the forms of religion, or, more properly speaking, touching the powers and functions of those who 3. As early as the latter end of the fifteenth assumed to be its authorized and exclusive pro- century, some vigorous efforts were made to propounders and guardians, absorbed the attention of mote the rational interpretation of the sacred the Christian world. The Scriptures were only writings. The labourers, however, were few, and resorted to as the arsenal in which were deposited the aids they possessed for the elucidation of the the aggressive arms of the spiritual combatants; text were scanty and imperfect. Early in the and these were used against each other in the seventeenth century, their numbers were greatly most arbitrary and unskilful manner. All desire increased, and we find many names distinguished for true learning became extinct; the principles of in the republic of letters, who were then successinterpretation were lost sight of and forgotten; and fully cultivating this branch of learning. By the there were few who could even read, and much middle of this century, the number of biblical stu less understand, the text of the sacred books. In dents was considerably augmented, and the result of the twelfth century, the Scriptures were torn in their labours was proportionately increased. After pieces between two parties: the scholastic theolo-all, however, those who were at this time devoted to B the pursuit of scriptural inquiries formed but an insignificant band, and were regarded by their contemporaries as the students of an isolated branch of learning, too uninteresting in its aspect and too limited in its results to command or reward general attention. 4. Towards the close of the seventeenth century, biblical learning was brought into more general favour, and assumed a more popular and inviting form. It was no longer viewed as the exclusive possession of the clerical body, but as forming part of the common property of the republic of letters. Numerous and valuable acquisitions were made to the previously existing stock of materials for the criticism and interpretation of the Bible, and the success with which these were applied, stimulated numerous minds to further inquiries and research for the discovery of new sources of information. 5. The enlightened and indefatigable exertions of Mill, Wetstein, Griesbach, and Kennicott, were directed to a restoration of the integrity or purity of the sacred text; while the learned and ingenious Shaw, whose "Travels and Observations, relating to several parts of Barbary and the Levant," appear to have attracted the notice of the celebrated Harmer, pointed out a new source of biblical illustration. The "Observations on various passages of Scripture, placing them in a new light, and ascertaining the meaning of several not determinable by the methods commonly made use of by the learned, from relations incidently mentioned in books of voyages and travels into the East," are too well known and valued to require more than this passing remark. The hope expressed by the indefatigable author, as to the result of his labours, has been fully realized: "If my design succeeds, commentators will not, I hope, for the future, think they have extended their inquiries far enough, when they examine a text with grammatical nicety; they will, along with that, pay an unbroken attention to the customs of the eastern people, and look upon this additional care as absolutely necessary to make a good commentator." About the same period, the learned Michaelis was engaged in a similar course, on a large scale, for the illustration of the Scriptures; and he had induced the king of Denmark to send a deputation of learned travellers, to pursue the necessary inquiries, under his directions, in Egypt and Syria. The result of their voyage was given, in French, by Mons. Neibuhr, in a work which, as to the part connected with these subjects, was never translated into English. The labours of Michaelis and his followers, on the continent, and those of Mr. Harmer and his successors in England, aided by the observations of a series of intelligent and learned travellers, have completely established that new era of sacred criticism which Mr. Harmer anticipated. 6. From this period, the sphere of biblical research and illustration has been gradually enlarging. The metaphysician and the naturalist, the antiquary and the traveller, the philologist and the historian, have contributed their respective shares towards the criticism and exposition of the Bible. The materials now collected for elucidating the sacred text are numerous and valuable, and scarcely a month passes without furnishing the most unquestionable evidence that their value is well understood by those competent to employ them, in removing obscurities, clearing up difficulties, eliciting new beauties, or educing further instruction from that Book which is above all price. But such persons are comparatively few; and much remains to be done before the aids we possess for interpreting and illustrating the Scriptures can be rendered available for general use. 7. Hitherto, with but one or two exceptions, the method in which the several branches of criticism and interpretation have been treated, has had the effect of restricting the study of these topics to those whose professional engagements have rendered such study imperative; or to those whose learning and leisure have induced them to look upon the study as a source of mere intellectual enjoyment. It does seem strange that it should scarcely have entered into the minds of those who have written upon these topics, that the great bulk of the Christian community is individually and immediately interested in them, and that the stores of learning which have now been thrown open, might be rendered available for the purposes of general instruction. Treatises on biblical criticism and interpretation are, with scarcely an exception, so elaborate and profound, so abstruse and technical, that an ordinary mind, unused to severe study, cannot fail of being deterred from making an attempt to investigate the principles of these interesting and important themes. 8. It must not be inferred from what is here said, that it is conceived to be possible for any valuable acquisitions to be made in this department of learning, without a close application to study; or that a competent knowledge of its principles may be attained by a mind naturally sluggish or obtuse. But on the other hand, it may be maintained, without fear of successful contradiction, that much of that description of learning which the art of interpretation requires may be brought within the reach and be adapted to the comprehension of persons whose minds are not above the ordinary standard, and whose circumstances require that much of their time and attention should be given to other affairs. The |