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great pitcher, which was heated internally; or whether it was a plate of copper, put over the fire on which the preparation of bread designed to be baked was placed, may admit a question. At any rate, it is necessary to quit entirely our English ideas of ovens, when considering these passages.

As to the kneading troughs, we have given a'figure of them; from which it appears, that we must also lay aside English ideas when considering them; and to that figure, with its accompanying explanation, we refer.

For a figure of the pitcher-like oven, vide FRAGMENT, No. 109.

VERSE 16.

THE PLAGUE OF LICE.

This word, in Hebrew □ cinnim, the Lxx render Exvies, small flies, GNATS; and the writer of the Book of Wisdom says, chap. xix. 10. the land produced flies, gnats. Origen, and Jerom also, read gnats. I apprehend they were of the same nature as what are called moschettoes in the West Indies, and other sultry climates: these, says the sacred historian, "became lice [gnats] in, 5, man and in beast." I need not stay to prove that this particle signifies upon, no less than in; it is so rendered often, and often. The following is from Mr. Parkhurst. "One can hardly suppose but the LXX, who dwelt in Egypt, knew in general what was intended by this Hebrew name; especially as their interpretation is confirmed by Philo, himself also an Alexandrian Jew, and by Origen, a Christian father, who likewise lived at Alexandria. Both Philo and Origen represent them as being very troublesome. The latter describes them as being winged insects, but so small as to escape any but the acutest sight; and says, that when settled on the body, they wound it with a most sharp and painful piercer," Heb. Dict. p. 362.

Notwithstanding these arguments, the learned Bochart, and others, have thought, that lice were really intended by the historian. 1st, As they are said to come from the dust of the land, not from the waters, from whence gnats arise, in the usual course of nature. 2dly, As they afflicted beasts, as well as men ; which is perfectly agreeable to the nature of lice, of which every kind of animal is infested by its own species. 3dly, From the etymology of the word; which signifies stability, firmness, difficult to be got rid of, as Aristotle speaks, Hist. lib. v. cap. 31. 4thly, In the Talmud, cinnah signifies a louse. These arguments are not without adequate answers; but we only say, that it is most likely the LXX, being resident in Egypt, should be best acquainted with this subject, and their version may turn the scale of opinion.

VERSE 21.

THE PLAGUE OF FLIES.

The dog-fly, or zimb: on which we have said enough in FRAGMENT, No. 56.

The LXX render xuvouvia, the dog-fly: which word, says Hesychius, denotes impudent, bold, audacious; qualities which belong to the fly and the dog; than which, says Elian, lib. viii. cap. 19. there are no animals more impudent. Some have thought the word signified a "mixture," or assemblage of different kinds of the fly genus; so Aquila and Jerom. The Arabic version reads "a mixture of wild beasts, venomous insects, and reptiles ;" Rabbi Selomo, “all kinds of venomous animals, as serpents and scorpions ;" Aben-ezra, "all the wild beasts mingled in association, as lions, bears, and leopards." I mention these marvellous renderings, to show the absolute necessity of well understanding the natural history of a country; since that only can direct our inquiries: and since all these opposed renderings cannot possibly be well founded. Moreover, they appear to be contrary to verse 31. which seems to imply the withdrawing of a single kind.

CHAPTER IX. VERSE 3.

MURRAIN AMONG THE CATTLE.

We are told, verse 6. that ALL the cattle of Egypt died. Either then, the word ALL must be taken for a great number, as it often is; or the district throughout which the cattle died was but small; since we afterward read, verse 19. of securing the cattle from the hail storm, and, chap. xii. 29. that the firstborn of the cattle were smitten. If the reader dislike either of these interpretations, he may allow a distance of time between the two miracles, during which the stock of cattle had been replenished in this district. As to the nature of this distemper, it appears to have been extremely rapid, and even sudden; the contagion was, it is likely therefore, inhaled from the atmosphere, which fluid, if rendered unwholesome, would communicate disease as readily to a thousand as to one. We have had diseases among the cattle of Europe, whose progress has been observed to advance from place to place, at the rate of a certain number of miles per day: whence it has been thought the cause of the disease was flying insects.

VERSE 8.

able nature and form of his furnace, vide the print of Moses took ashes from the furnace: for the probSLAVES IN THE EAST.

The nature of this disease was, probably, that of inflammatory buboes, or ulcers rising into pustules : but whether they were plague sores is doubtful; because, in verse 15. Moses threatens to smite the Egyptians with pestilence; nor do we read that any number of persons died of this malady: pestilence, therefore, seems not to have been employed hitherto.

VERSE 18.

THE PLAGUE OF HAIL

Hail in some countries is a very common produc tion of the atmosphere; in Egypt it is rare, because

the sultry nature of the climate does not permit its formation, the air being seldom cold enough, in its upper regions, to freeze the falling drops of rain. We see, then, a double interference of Providence in this miracle. 1st, That hail should be formed. 2dly, That it should happen tomorrow, at a time prefixed. Whoever reflects that no human power could direct the atmosphere to this, or to any other effect, must be convinced that there could be no juggling trick in this case. 3dly, That in a certain district of country these occurrences did not take place.

Observe how the lightning is called fire, from heaven, which ran along [darted] upon the ground, mingled with the hail. But the hail smote man and But the hail smote man and beast: every herb, [wy osheb] shrubs, and minor plants; every tree, larger and stronger.

Observe the duration of this miracle; usually hail storms last but a little time; but this storm last ed long enough to terrify Pharaoh, and to induce him to entreat its suppression. In proportion to the infrequency of this kind of storm must have been the terror which it infused into Pharaoh, and which must have been proportionately increased by its continu

ance.

Scripture mentions, verse 31. flax and barley; and, verse 32. wheat and rye: we shall just notice these vegetables.

Flax, in Hebrew pishtah, is the vegetable from whose filaments linen is made; so that the importance of this plant to the Egyptians can only be known, by reflecting on the commerce in linen which Egypt carried on as well in foreign countries as at home.

The flax was bolled; this word signifies to rise into a stalk, or stem, which is of a roundish form. But some think that the seeds, or grain of the flax, were assuming a roundish form within their husks: and that this is the import of the word used in the original.

Barley is the most ancient aliment of mankind, as Pliny says, lib. xviii. on the testimony of Menander. Barley is called, in Hebrew, hairy, my shoreh, from its long and stiff beard.

We need only mention plants so well known among us as these are.

Wheat also is a grain too well known to need description; its importance is equal in Egypt and in England. The cultivation of this plant was general in Egypt, and the mention of it in so early a history renders it likely that it was well known, not merely in Egypt, but in the countries around: though some bave thought it was late before it was introduced into Sicily, where afterward it flourished greatly.

The Hebrew word no cusmet, signifies a hairy plant; it is usually thought to be the zea, or spelt, which is a species of corn. The LXX and Theodotion render olyra; and Aquila renders zea; both hich words signify spelt. Vide Ezek. iv. 9. Dr. Shaw thinks this word may signify rice. Hassel

quist, on the contrary, affirms that rice was brought into cultivation in Egypt under the califs: but I much doubt of this; and think, that from the intercourse of ancient Egypt with Babylon and with India, this country could not be ignorant of a grain so well suited to its climate: notwithstanding this, rice is not, that I recollect, mentioned, or even clearly alluded to, till the time of the prophet Isaiah; vide Isai. xxxii. 20.

CHAPTER X. VERSES 4, 15.

Leewenhoeck

species mentioned in the present passage is called There are in Scripture ten names for locusts: the arbah; which, say the Lexicons, imports multiplicity; a very just description of the locust tribes! 80 eggs: if every female is equally prolific, and lays says, he has seen a female lay more than three or four times in a summer, what an immense multitude must arise, and that speedily, from such fertility!

The wind which brought these insects, is called kadim; and is usually translated "the east wind:" but is supposed, in some places, to denote a wind

south of the east: so that the LXX render NoTov xai

Aßa, south and south-east ; also xavowva, a burning wind. Bochart prefers this rendering to the other; supposing it was more proper for the bringing these this is not necessary, as locusts do not constantly insects from Ethiopia, than from Arabia. However, observe the same courses.

The wind which carried away these insects is called the sea wind, i.e. wind from the sea, the Mediterranean; which, therefore, we conclude drove these locusts into the Red Sea, where they perished.

VERSE 21.

THE PLAGUE OF DARKNESS.

I presume that the inhabitants of England, and Holland, have frequent opportunities of contemplating darknesses by means of fogs, &c. which in the climate of Egypt would be altogether miraculous. Where the air is so clear as hardly to form clouds, those clouds can much less appear in the state of that thick vapour which a fog in London sometimes assumes. It is common among us to say "the fog is so thick it may be cut with a knife!" and I find to my surprise the same phraseology in Scheuzer, which I take to be perfectly analogous to the expression of the sacred writer, "darkness which might be felt." I am sure I have often felt the grossly vaporated air, the dense compact mistiness, of a London atmosphere.

The duration of this fog is marked as being three days; which, I suppose, is to be taken in the Hebrew sense, as denoting the close of the first day, the whole of the second, and the beginning of the third

day; so that the Egyptians must have been very sensible of their embarrassing situation.

As to the expressions that "they could not see each other, nor did they rise from their places;" these I suppose may be taken somewhat at large; since artificial lights, as lamps, flambeaux, &c. were in use. But these probably gave that kind of obscure solemnity of illumination, which our London lamps exhibit during the darkness of a foggy evening.

This kind of dim half light, would astonish the ininhabitants of Egypt, who would rather sit at home, than venture abroad, and endeavour at their personal risk to visit their friends, or to follow their occupations:

and through the palpable obsoure, find out Their uncouth way.

The author of the book of Wisdom has indulged his fancy on the subject of this darkness, and its concomitants: it is probable that such stories were in circulation among the Jews of his time; but how greatly superior is the simple narrative of holy writ! Having thus succinctly touched on each of these miracles, we may now attempt an observation or two respecting them taken together.

Miracles may be classed, 1st, as those which are analogous to the general course of nature, but are superior to it, or are varied from it. 2dly, Those which are in direct opposition to the general course of nature. In the first class we may instance, the depriving a person of life, as Peter did Ananias and Sapphira. It is according to nature that a person should die, but the circumstances of the deaths of those two persons, render them miraculous. In the second class we may instance, a resurrection from the dead; which is in direct opposition to the general principles of nature, and to every possible result from them.

To apply these hints to the miracles of Moses in Egypt, observe, that these miracles are analogous to the course of nature, rather than opposed to it; at least, this inference is plausible in regard to those which were imitated by the Egyptians, which do not seem to have been of a nature superior to those which the Egyptians could not imitate, yet these were according to nature; for to this day that country breeds swarms of musquettoes, though not in such numbers as Aaron was instrumental in producing. The nature of the zimb, or dog-fly of Abyssinia, explains the plague of flies to be rather a direction of a particular insect, to accomplish a particular purpose, than any new creation of a specific kind, or any direction of this insect contrary to its nature. The mortality among the cattle is what it has pleased Providence to visit other countries with occasionally; and our own country has smarted under it, though perhaps by very different means. The biles and ulcers were diseases, which, I apprehend, are still known in

Egypt: and the storm of hail and lightning, though a wonderful phenomenon in that country, yet has its principles in nature. The same may be said of the locusts, whose swarms completed the devastation of the land; and of the darkness, whose solid obscurity shrouded the whole city and its neighbourhood.

There remains one miracle, the death of the firstborn, which seems to be reserved as the most convincing proof of Divine interposition: the death of the firstborn in the same night. Even in this miracle, we observe, that these very persons were born to die, since such is the tenure of human life; but that they should die at the same time, is very striking. Having characterized this miracle as the most wonderful of all, let us examine some of its particulars.

1st, The word firstborn is by no means necessarily to be understood of an actually firstborn child ; since we read of the firstborn of the poor, Isai. xiv. 30. i.e. those extremely impoverished; and even what would be a contradiction, if strictly taken, the firstborn of DEATH, Job xviii. 13. i.e. the most fatal, the most terrible of deaths. If then we take the word firstborn in this passage to import the chief, the most illustrious, the prime of each family, we shall, I presume, perceive its full power, and shall avoid ambiguity in reference to those families which had not any firstborn CHILD. This is also perfectly coincident with a sense of which I think the words are capable, chap. xii. 12. upon all the DIGNITARIES of Egypt I will execute judgment: not against the gods, as our translators read; for how could they feel; or what judgment did they, [i.e. idol deities] experience? or what notice is taken of any such event? But the chiefs of Egypt certainly felt the judgment of God, when the land was despoiled of its principals; and the representations and clamours of their friends and connections must needs have been powerful and influential, not to say alarming, to the reigning prince. This also appears to be the sense of the passage, Numb. xxxiii. 4. "And the Egyptians buried [implying attention, if not pomp] those whom Jehovah had smitten among them; even those dignitaries upon whom Jehovah executed judgments." The mention of burial leads to this idea, for I think the gods of Egypt are not meant to be hinted at, as if they were buried among others.

That the firstborn of cattle should peculiarly suf fer under this stroke, is altogether singular, and indeed is enough to induce one to inquire for the true sense of the passage; but, if the prime, the most val uable of cattle, might be understood by it, which nothing forbids, then all becomes easy; and this in fliction falls the more heavily on a people, whose ai fection for their cattle, to say nothing of some of then as objects of their devotion, would lead them to grea agitations, if not excesses, under this privation their property, and their dependencies on them support. Does not this slaughter of the cattle Loo

fo

like a confirmation of the following idea, that a postilential visitation was employed on this occasion?

May we venture to compare this slaughter of the Egyptians, with that of the Assyrians? 2 Kings, xix. Isai. xxxvii. They agree in some circumstances, as Ist, an angel is said to have been employed in both; 2dly, both were by night; 3dly, the survivors lament as if all were dead. As we have seen reason to think that the secondary cause or agent employed, was the Samiel or hot wind, in the instance of Sennacherib's army, might the same secondary cause be employed in the punishment of the Egyptians? was this the species of pestilence engaged? Whatever species it was, it equally obeyed the injunctions of divine power; as this might do as well as any other. But, if so, then all the latter plagues of Egypt, those which the magicians could not imitate, were derived from the air; and their procedure was according tothe usual course of nature, not contrary to it; though this and all were perhaps invigorated beyond their natural powers, and specifically directed in their effects, both as to when and where; which being foretold, and punctually and directly executed, implied the intervention of superior agency; for what human power could have accomplished these events either as to time or place?

CHAPTER XII. VERSES 3, 4, 5

THE PASCHAL LAMB.

The paschal lamb in respect to natural history offers no distinction from any other animal of the species. We only observe, that a kid is admitted equally with a lamb, and that the qualities of the animal demand our notice.

It is remarkable that Hcmer employs one word, unhov, to denote sheep or goats; and that the fold of either kind is expressed by one word, enxos: the skin of either is called also by one word, so is their excrement; and so is their voice. In these instances, then, the usage of the Greeks was similar to that of the Hebrews, who by the word n SHEH, denoted both species; as appears in verse 5.

The age of this lamb, one year, and its sex, male, its qualities, without blemish, deserve remark. At least eight days must have passed over every animal destined to sacrifice, Exod. xxii. 30; Levit. xxii. 27. neither could it be older than one year. Now, as the ewes of Judea bring forth more than once a year, there might be more than one kind of lambs at the time of the passover, all in their first year. 1st, Those born in the month Nisan of the former year; these are the spring-fallen lambs, and they are called by Aquila, pwipa proima, and by Symmachus, poToyova protogona. 2dly, The lambs of the autumn falling in the month Tizri; Aquila calls these ou opsima, and Symmachus calls them devTepoyova denterogona. 3dly, Those of the Nisan of the present year, which were not yet one month old. These

lambs differing in age, receive therefore different appellations.

Unleavened bread: this was made in haste, not to give time for the leaven to ferment in the meal, which requires some hours. See the allusion, 1 Cor. v. 6; Gal. v. 9.

Bitter herbs: these herbs must have been easily procurable by the Israelites; they were, therefore, 1st, common in Egypt; 2dly, the food of labourers. We have nothing to direct us in ascertaining these plants but conjecture; since what is common in Egypt now, might not have been so anciently.

The Mishna, in Pesachim, cap. ii. reckons five species of these bitter herbs, which it names, 1st, chazareth, taken for the lettuce; 2dly, ulsin, supposed to be endive, or succory; 3dly, tamca, thought to be chervil, but some say tansey; 4thly, charubinin, or charchobinin: Bochart thought this might be the nettle, but Scheuzer thinks it is the camomile; 5thly, meror, the son thistle, or dent-de-lion, or wild lettuce: the true plant unknown.

VERSE 22.

Hyssop, is an aromatic bitter plant, very well known, and well ascertained: this therefore has no difficulty.

CHAPTER. XIII. VERSES 21, 22.

The column of fire and smoke, offers nothing for the consideration of naturalists; as no natural cloud could have subsisted so long undissolved in that sultry climate; or under the vicissitudes of moisture, wind, tempest, &c.

PASSAGE OF THE RED SEA.

[Vide FRAGMENT, No. 39, aud MAP.]

That the wind has great influence on narrow waters, and that occasionally waters are compressed by the wind into a greater depth than usual, or are rendered more shallow than usual, is well known; but the miracle in this case is augmented by the prediction: no power simply human could expect that the wind would blow from any certain point, much less from any given point, to suit a certain purpose; and that after the accomplishment of that purpose, it should cease, and suffer the body of water to resume its former station. There seem to be traditions of this fact preserved by several means. We cannot lay very great stress on the reports of the present Arabs around the coast, because it is probable they might learn the history from the Jewish nation; but Diodorus Siculus seems to have heard of it; for he says, lib. iii. "A history is related in the country of the Ichthyophagi, [on the coast of the Red Sea,] which they pretend to have received from their apcestors, that one day there was so extraordinary a reflux of wates, that the whole bottom of the gulf was

left dry, and appeared verdant, because the sea was withdrawn from it. After the bottom had been some time uncovered, another great flux of water came and covered the gulf again." Under this idea, this event is referred to by Artapanus, Euseb. Prep. Ev. liv. ix. who gives it as derived from the inhabitants of Memphis. Josephus differs but little from these authors, Antiq. cap. vii. Artapanus says, "the king of Egypt, as soon as the Jews had departed from his country, pursued them with an immense army, bearing along with them the consecrated animals. But Moses having, by the divine command, struck the waters with his rod, they parted asunder, and afforded a free passage to the Israelites. The Egyptians attempted to follow them, when fire suddenly flashed in their faces, and the sea, returning to its usual channel, brought an universal destruction on their whole army."

CHAPTER XV. VERSES 13, 14, 15.

THE BITTER WATERS SWEEtened.

Belon says of those fountains which he supposed to be the same as those sweetened by Moses, that their waters are very salt and very bitter. The soil they rise in is barren, sandy, and nitrous, in a vast plain, about fifty paces from each other. They rise at the foot of a small hill, from whence they discharge several streams, like running fountains, but soon lose themselves in the sand. "The heat, says he, had brought on us so strong a thirst, that we were under the necessity of drinking this water; and our extreme thirst made us think it of an agreeable taste, although it is bitter, by reason of the nitre with which it is impregnated."

As to the wood used by Moses, it is not distinguished in the text; the sacred writer only naming it wood or tree. The Rabbins, indeed, tell us that it was itself of a most bitter kind; but we think there is no need to augment the miracle. The probability is, that it was rather of a corrective kind; and this seems to have been the opinion of the author of Ecclesiasticus, xxxviii. 5. "Was not the water made sweet with wood, that the virtue thereof [i.e. of the wood] might be known?" This, at least, is certain, that no wood possessing such natural properties is now used by the Arabs, who would never have lost the knowledge of such a valuable article, had it been communicated to them. It seems to me useless to endeavour to identify this wood, but some have supposed that it might be of the Nerium, or the sugar cane family. Mr. Forskat, in answer to Michaelis, says, a Caraite Jew in Cairo told him they had a tradition it was the Nerium Oleander, Niebuhr, Pref. xxix.

Palm-trees. This kind of tree is pretty well known among us; and there is no difficulty in admitting the reference of the Hebrew word to this tree. The palm, says Plutarch, de Pythia, is a tree which loves water; and Pliny says, it loves to drink throughout the whole

year. Ecclesiasticus also says, xxiv. 14. "I was exalted as a palm-tree in Engaddi ;" which we know was a very watery spot, and therefore fit for gardens, &c. This tree, of that kind which bears dates, is general in the East, though rare in Europe. The leaves which crown the top of it are brought over as lining to boxes of fruit, &c. to our grocers.

Of Elim, Dr. Shaw says, "I saw no more than nine of the twelve wells that are mentioned by Moses; the other three being filled up by those drifts of sand which are common in Arabia. Yet this loss is amply made up by the great increase of the palm-trees; the seventy having propagated themselves into more than two thousand. Under the shade of these trees is the Hammam Mousa, the bath of Moses, which the inhabitants of Tor have in extraordinary esteem and veneration; acquainting us, that it was here that Moses himself, and his particular household, were encamped," Travels, p. 350. folio edit.

CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 4, &c.

THE MANNA.

This production was, probably, like many other miracles, partly natural, partly miraculous. It is certain that manna is now found on trees, &c. in the East, and perhaps in this very desert. But, that it should fall in such quantities, and under such restrictions and peculiarities, is not according to nature: that it should breed worms if kept beyond a day; that none of it should fall on the Sabbath, are altogether extraordinary that it should melt by the heat of the sun is not so wonderful, since what is now found in these parts exhales like dew after the sun is hot. Nor am Icertain that there was any thing unaccountable in the quantity gathered for each person, since it is likely the people collected according to their families, and the number of children in each, would adjust a considerable apparent difference of quantity; not to say, they might impart to each other as wanted. We have no need to multiply miracles like the Rabbins. I would doubt, however, whether all the camp depended constantly on this manna for food; where were the cattle, milch kine, &c. brought out of Egypt? vide Numb. xi. 22. and though they might have little fish, yet vegetables of some kinds they might procure, as we are not, perhaps, under the necessity of supposing that they were entirely secluded from intercourse with adjacent tribes of Arabs, and neighbouring nations; and if they lived on the dates of the palm-tree, why not Israel also? and why might not Israel purchase those and other fruits? The mixed multitude fell a lusting," Numb. xi. 4.

I shall translate Niebuhr's account of the manna found in the East, p. 128. French edit. 4to. "Manna is found at present in divers parts of the East, but I own that I neglected to procure information at the most celebrated places, that is to say, around mount

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