Scripture. and, besides those recorded in Scripture, refers to the case of several who suffered under the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes (2 Maccab. chap. viii. &c. chap. xi. 30. xii. 2.).

223 The seven Catholic epiatles.

Macknight en the E pistles.

224 Epistle of James the

Less

Having thus finished the argumentative part of the Epistle, the apostle proceeds to a general application; in which he exhorts the Hebrew Christians to patience, peace, and holiness (chap. xii. 3-14.); cautions them against secular views and sensual gratifications, by laying before them the incomparable excellence of the blessings introduced by the gospel, which even the Jewish economy, glorious and magnificent as it was, did by no means equal; exhorts them to brotherly affection, purity, compassion, dependence on the divine care, stedfastness in the profession of truth, a life of thankfulness to God, and benevolence to man: and concludes the whole with recommending their pious ministers to their particular regard, intreating their prayers, saluting and granting them his usual benediction.

The seven following Epistles, one of James, two of Peter, three of John, and one of Jude, have been distinguished by the appellation of catholic or general epistles, because most of them are inscribed, not to particular churches or persons, but to the body of Jewish or Gentile converts over the world. The authenticity of some of these has been frequently questioned, viz. The Epistle of James, the second of Peter, the Epistle of Jude, and the second and third of John. The ancient Christians were very cautious in admitting any books into their canon whose authenticity they had any reason to suspect. They rejected all the writings forged by heretics in the name of the apostles, and certainly, therefore, would not receive any without first subjecting them to a severe scrutiny. Now, though these five epistles were not immediately acknowledged as the writings of the apostles, this only shows that the persons who doubted had not received complete and incontestable evidence of their authenticity. But as they were afterwards universally received, we have every reason to conclude, that upon a strict examination they were found to be the genuine productions of the apostles. The truth is, so good an opportunity had the ancient Christians of examining this matter, so careful were they to guard against imposition, and so well founded was their judgment concerning the books of the New Testament, that, as Dr Lardner observes, no writing which they pronounced genuine has yet been proved spurious, nor have we at this day the least reason to believe any book genuine which they rejected.

That the Epistle of James was written in the apostolical age is proved by the quotations of ancient authors. Clemens Romanus and Ignatius seem to have made references to it. Origen quotes it once or twice.-There are several reasons why it was not more generally quoted by the first Christian writers. Being written to correct the errors and vices which prevailed among the Jews, the Gentiles might think it of less importance to them, and therefore take no pains to procure copies of it. As the author was sometimes denominated James the Just, and often called bishop of Jerusalem, it might be doubted whether he was one of the apostles. But its authenticity does not seem to have been suspected on account of the doctrines which it contains. In modern times, indeed, Luther called it a strawy epistle (epistola straminea), and excluded it from the sacred writings,

on account of its apparent opposition to the apostle Paul Scripture. concerning justification by faith.

This Epistle could not be written by James the Elder, the son of Zebedee, and brother of John, who was beheaded by Herod in the year 44, for it contains passages which refer to a later period. It must, therefore, have been the composition of James the Less, the son of Alpheus, who was called the Lord's brother, because he was the son of Mary, the sister of our Lord's mother. 225 As to the date of this Epistle, Lardner fixes it in the The date, year 61 or 62.

226

James the Less statedly resided at Jerusalem, whence he hath been styled by some ancient fathers bishop of Doddridthat city, though without sufficient foundation. Now ge's Family James being one of the apostles of the circumcision, Expositor. while he confined his personal labours to the inhabitants of Judea, it was very natural for him to endeavour by his writings to extend bis services to the Jewish Christians who were dispersed abroad in more distant re- and design gions. For this purpose, there are two points which of it. the apostle seems to have principally aimed at, though he hath not pursued them in an orderly and logical me-thod, but in the free epistolary manner, handling them jointly or distinctly aз occasions naturally offered. And these were,

to correct those errors both in doctrine and practice into which the Jewish Christians had fallen, which might otherwise have produced fatal consequences; and then to establish the faith and animate the hope of sincere believers, both under their present and their approaching sufferings."

The opinions which he is most anxious to refute are these, that God is the author of sin, (ch. i. 13.); that the belief of the doctrines of the gospel was sufficient to procure the favour of God for them, however deficient they were in good works, (ch. ii.). He dissuades the Jews from aspiring to the office of teachers in the third chapter, because their prejudices in favour of the law of Moses might induce them to pervert the doctrines of the gospel. He therefore guards them against the sins of the tongue, by representing their pernicious effects; and as they thought themselves wise and intelligent, and were ambitious of becoming teachers, he advises them to make good their pretensions, by showing themselves possessed of that wisdom which is from above, (ch. iii.).

The destruction of Jerusalem was now approaching; the Jews were split into factions, and often slaughtered one another; the apostle, therefore, in the fourth chapter, admonishes them to purify themselves from those vices which produced tumults and bloodshed. To rouse them to repentance, he foretels the miseries that were coming upon them. Lastly, he checks an irreligious spirit that seems to have prevailed, and concludes the Epistle with several exhortations.

227

Peter.

The authenticity of the first Epistle of Peter has First Enever been denied. It is referred to by Clemens Ro- pistle of manus, by Polycarp, and is quoted by Papias, Irenæus, Clemens Alexandrinus, and Tertullian. It is addressed to the strangers scattered through Pontus, &c. who are evidently Christians in general, as appears from chap. ii. 10. "In time past they were not a people, but are now the people of God." From Peter's sending the salutation of the church at Babylon to the Christians in Pontus, &c. it is generally believed that he wrote it in Babylon. There was a Babylon in

Egypt

Scripture. Egypt and another in Assyria. It could not be the former, for it was an obscure place, which seems to have had no church for the first four centuries. We have no authority to affirm that Peter ever was in Assyria. The most probable opinion is that of Grotius, Whitby, Lardner, as well as of Eusebius, Jerome, and others, that by Babylon Peter figuratively means Rome. Lardner dates it in 63 or 64, or at the latest 65.

228

The date

229 and desigu of it.

ty of it proved

St Peter's chief design is to confirm the doctrine of St Paul, which the false teachers pretended he was opposing; and to assure the proselytes that they stood in the true grace of God, (ch. v. 12.). With this view he calls them elect; and mentions, that they had been declared such by the effusion of the Holy Ghost upon them, (ch. i. 1, 2.). He assures them that they were regenerate without circumcision, merely through the gospel and resurrection of Christ, (ver. 3, 4, 21-25.); and that their sufferings were no argument of their being under the displeasure of God, as the Jews imagined, (ver. 6-12.). He recommends it to them to hope for grace to the end, (ver. 13.). He testifies, that they were not redeemed by the Paschal lamb, but through Christ, whom God had preordained for this purpose before the foundation of the world, (ver. 18-20.).

230 Second E- The second Epistle of Peter is not mentioned by any pistle of ancient writer extant till the fourth century, from which Peter. The time it has been received by all Christians except the Syauthentici- rians. Jerome acquaints us, that its authenticity was disputed, on account of a remarkable difference between the style of it and the former Epistle. But this remarkable difference in style is confined to the 2d chapter of the 2d Epistle. No objection, however, can be drawn from this circumstance; for the subject of that chapter is different from the rest of Peter's writings, and nothing is so well known than that different subjects suggest different styles. Peter, in describing the character of some flagitious impostors, feels an indignation which he cannot suppress: it breaks out, therefore, in the bold and animated figures of an oriental writer. Such a diversity of style is not uncommon in the best writers, especially when warmed with their subject.

231

from internal evidence.

This objection being removed, we contend that this Epistle was written by Peter, from the inscription, Simon Peter, a servant and an apostle of Jesus Christ. It appears from chap. i. 16, 17, 18. that the writer was one of the disciples who saw the transfiguration of our Saviour. Since it has never been ascribed to James or John, it must therefore have been Peter. It is evident, from chap. iii. 1. that the author had written an Epistle before to the same persons, which is another circumstance that proves Peter to be the author.

any

It is acknowledged, however, that all this evidence is merely internal; for we have not been able to find external evidence upon the subject. If, therefore, the If, therefore, the credit which we give to any fact is to be in proportion to the degree of evidence with which it is accompanied, we shall allow more authority due to the gospels than to the epistles; more to those epistles which have been generally acknowledged than to those which have been controverted; and therefore no doctrine of Christianity ought to be founded solely upon them. It may also be added, that perhaps the best way of determining what are the essential doctrines of Christianity would be to examine what are the doctrines which occur oftenest in the gospels; for the gospels are the plainest parts of

the New Testament; and their authenticity is most Scripture. completely proved. They are therefore best fitted for common readers. Nor will it be denied, we presume, that our Saviour taught all the doctrines of the Christian religion himself; that he repeated them on different occasions, and inculcated them with an earnestness proportionable to their importance. The Epistles are to be considered as a commentary on the essential doctrines of the gospel, adapted to the situation and circumstances of particular churches, and perhaps sometimes explaining doctrines of inferior importance. 1. The essential doctrines are therefore first to be sought for in the gospels, and to be determined by the number of times they occur. 2. They are to be sought for, in the next place, in the uncontroverted Epistles, in the same manner. 3. No essential doctrine ought to be founded on a single passage, nor on the authority of a controverted Epistle.

232

That Peter was old, and near his end, when he wrote this Epistle, may be inferred from chap. i. 14. "Knowing that shortly I must put off this tabernacle, even as our Lord Jesus has shewn me." Lardner thinks it was written soon after the former. Others, perhaps with more accuracy, date it in 67. The general design of this Epistle is, to confirm the Design of doctrines and instructions delivered in the former; "to it. excite the Christian converts to adorn, and stedfastly adhere to their holy religion, as a religion proceeding from God, notwithstanding the artifices of false teachers, whose character is at large described; or the persecution of their bitter and inveterate enemies."

233

John. Its

The first Epistle of John is ascribed by the unanimous First Esufirage of the ancients to the beloved disciple of our pistle of Lord. It is referred to by Polycarp, is quoted by Pa- authentipias, by Irenæus, and was received as genuine by Cle- city and mens Alexandrinus, by Dionysius of Alexandria, by Cy- style. prian, by Origen, and Eusebius. There is such a resemblance between the style and sentiments of this Epistle and those of the gospel according to John, as to afford the highest degree of internal evidence that they are the composition of the same author. In the style of this apostle there is a remarkable peculiarity, and especially in this Epistle. His sentences, considered separately, are exceeding clear and intelligible; but when we search for their connection, we frequently meet with greater difficulties than we do even in the Epistles of St Paul. The principal signature and characteristic of his manner is an artless and amiable simplicity, and a singular modesty and candour, in conjunction with a wonderful sublimity of sentiment. His conceptions are apparently delivered to us in the order in which they arose to his own mind, and are not the product of artificial reasoning or laboured investigation.

It is impossible to fix with any precision the date of this Epistle, nor can we determine to what persons it was addressed.

234

The leading design of the apostle is to show the in- Design of sufficiency of faith, and the external profession of reli-it. gion, separate from morality; to guard the Christians to whom he writes against the delusive arts of the corrupters of Christianity, whom he calls Antichrist; and to inculcate universal benevolence. His admonitions concerning the necessity of good morals, and the inefficacy of external professions, are scattered over the Epistle, but are most frequent in the 1st, 2d, and 3d chapters. The enemies or corrupters of Christianity,

against

false teachers, and the punishments to which they were Scripture. liable, to caution Christians against listening to their suggestions, and being thereby perverted from the faith and purity of the gospel.

Seripture. against whom he contends, seem to have denied that Jesus was the Messiah the Son of God (chapter ii. 22. v. 1.), and had actually come into the world in a human form, (chap. iv. 2, 3.). The earnestness and frequency with which this apostle recommends the duty of benevolence is remarkable. He makes it the distinguishing characteristic of the disciples of Jesus, the only sure pledge of our love to God, and the only assurance of eternal life, (chap. iii. 34, 15.). Benevolence was his favourite theme, which he affectionately pressed upon others, and constantly practised himself. It was conspicuous in his conduct to his great Master, and in the reciprocal affection which it inspired in his sacred breast. He continued to recommend it in his last words. When his extreme age and infirmities had so wasted his strength that he was incapable to exercise the duties of his office, the venerable old man, anxious to exert in the service of his Master the little strength which still remained, caused himself to be carried to church, and, in the midst of the congregation, he repeated these words, "Little children love one another."

235

Second and third Epistles of John

236

Epistle of

authenti

city

It has been observed by Dr Mill that the second and third Epistles of John are so short, and resemble the first so much in sentiment and style, that it is not worth while to contend about them. The second Epistle consists only of 13 verses; and of these eight may be found in the 1st Epistle, in which the sense or language is precisely the same.

The second Epistle is quoted by Irenæus, and was received by Clemens Alexandrinus. Both were admitted by Athanasius, by Cyril of Jerusalem, and by Jerome. The second is addressed to a woman of distinction whose name is by some supposed to be Cyria (taking via for a proper name), by others Eclecta. The third is inscribed to Gaius, or Caius according to the Latin orthography, who, in the opinion of Lardner, was an eminent Christian, that lived in some city of Asia not far from Ephesus, where St John chiefly resided after his leaving Judea. The time of writing these two Epistles cannot be determined with any certainty. They are so short, that an analysis of them is

not necessary.

The Epistle of Jude is cited by no ancient Christian Jude. Its writer extant before Clemens Alexandrinus about the year 194; but this author has transcribed eight or ten verses in his Stromata and Pedagogue. It is quoted once by Tertullian about the year 200; by Origen frequently about 230. It was not, however, received by many of the ancient Christians, on account of a supposed quotation from à book of Enoch. But it is not certain that Jude quotes any book. He only says that Enoch prophesied, saying, The Lord cometh with ten thousand of his saints. These might be words of a prophecy preserved by tradition, and inserted occasionally in different writings. Nor is there any evidence that there was such a book as Enoch's prophecies in the time of Jude, though a book of that name was extant in the second and third centuries. As to the date of this Epistle nothing beyond conjecture can be produced.

237

and design.

The design of it is, by describing the character of the

238

authenti

The Apocalypse or Revelation has not always been The Apeunanimously received as the genuine production of the calypse. Its apostle John. Its authenticity is proved, however, by city prothe testimony of many respectable authors of the first ved. centuries. It is referred to by the martyrs of Lyons: it was admitted by Justin Martyr as the work of the apostle John. It is often quoted by Irenæus, by Theophilus bishop of Antioch, by Clement of Alexandria, by Tertullian, by Origen, and by Cyprian of Carthage. It was also received by heretics, by Novatus and his followers, by the Donatists, and by the Arians. For the first two centuries no part of the New Testament was more universally acknowledged, or mentioned with higher respect. But a dispute having arisen about the millennium, Caius with some others, about the year 212, to end the controversy as speedily and effectually as possible, ventured to deny the authority of the book which had given occasion to it.

239

The book of Revelation, as we learn from Rev. i. 9. The date was written in the isle of Patmos. According to the of it. general testimony of ancient authors, John was banished into Patmos in the reign of Domitian, and restored by his successor Nerva. But the book could not be published till after John's release, when he returned to Ephesus. As Domitian died in 96, and his persecution did not commence till near the end of his reign, the Revelation might therefore be published in 96 or 97.

New Tes

Here we should conclude; but as the curious reader Percy's may desire to be informed how the predictions revealed Key to the in this book of St John have usually been interpreted tament. and applied, we shall consistently with our subject subjoin a key to the prophecies contained in the Revelation. This is extracted from the learned dissertations of Dr Newton, bishop of Bristol (1): to which the reader is referred for a more full illustration of the several parts, as the conciseness of our plan only admits a short analysis or abridgment of them.

240

Nothing of a prophetical nature occurs in the first three Dr Newchapters, except, 1. What is said concerning the church ton's exof Ephesus, that her "candlestick shall be removed out plication of the proof its place," which is now verified, not only in this, but phecies in all the other Asiatic churches which existed at that which have time; the light of the gospel having been taken from been althem, not only by their heresies and divisions from with-ready acin, but by the arms of the Saracens from without: And, complished. 2. Concerning the church of Smyrna, that she shall "have tribulation ten days;" that is, in prophetic language, "ten years;" referring to the persecution of Dioclesian, which alone of all the general persecutions lasted so long.

The next five chapters relate to the opening of the Seven Seals; and by these seals are intimated so many different periods of the prophecy. Six of these seals are opened in the sixth and seventh chapters.

The first seal or period is memorable for conquests.

It

der the fifth trumpet; but under the sixth, was "slain," Scripture. and utterly destroyed.

The Latin or Western Church not being reclaimed by the ruin of the Greek or Eastern, but still persisting in their idolatry and wickedness; at the beginning of the tenth chapter, and under the sound of this sixth trumpet, is introduced a vision preparative to the prophecies respecting the Western Church, wherein an angel is represented, having in his hand a little book, or codicil, describing the calamities that should overtake that church. The measuring of the temple shows, that during all this period there will be some true Christians, who will conform themselves to the rule of God's word, even whilst the outer court, that is, the external and more extensive part of this temple or church, is trodden under foot by Gentiles, i. c. such Christians as, in their idolatrous worship and persecuting practice, resemble and outdo the Gentiles themselves. Yet against these corrupters of religion there will always be some true witnesses to protest, who, however they may be overborne at times, and in appearance reduced to death, yet will arise again from time to time, till at last they triumph and gloriously ascend. The eleventh chapter concludes with the sounding of the seventh trumpet.

Scripture. It commences with Vespasian, and terminates in Nerva; and during this time Judea was subjugated. The second seal is noted for war and slaughter. It commences with Trajan, and continues through his reign, and that of his successors. In this period, the Jews were entirely routed and dispersed; and great was the slaughter and devastation occasioned by the contending parties. The third scal is characterised by a rigorous execution of justice, and an abundant provision of corn, wine, and oil. It commences with Septimius Severus. He and Alexander Severus were just and severe emperors, and at the same time highly celebrated for the regard they paid to the felicity of their people, by procuring them plenty of every thing, and particularly corn, wine, and oil. This period lasted during the reigns of the Septimian family. The fourth seal is distinguished by a concurrence of evils, such as war, famine, pestilence, and wild beasts; by all which the Roman empire was remarkably infested from the reign of Maximin to that of Dioclesian. The fifth seal begins at Dioclesian, and is signalized by the great persecution, from whence arose that memorable era, the Era of Martyrs. With Constantine begins the sixth seal, a period of revolutions, pictured forth by great commotions in earth and in heaven, alluding to the subversion of Paganism and the establishment of Christianity. This period lasted from the reign of Constantine the Great to that of Theodosius the First. The seventh seal includes under it the remaining parts of the prophecy, and comprehends seven periods distinguished by the sounding of seven trumpets.

As the seals foretold the state of the Roman empire before and till it became Christian, so the trumpets foreshow the fate of it afterwards; each trumpet being an alarm to one nation or other, rousing them up to overthrow that empire.

Four of these trumpets are sounded in the eighth chapter.

At the sounding of the first, Alaric and his Goths invade the Roman empire, besiege Rome twice, and set it on fire in several places. At the sounding of the se'cond, Attila and his Huns waste the Roman provinces, and compel the eastern emperor Theodosius the Second, and the western emperor Valentinian the Third, to submit to shameful terms. At the sounding of the third, Genseric and his Vandals arrive from Africa; spoil and plunder Rome, and set sail again with immense wealth and innumerable captives. At the sounding of the fourth, Odoacer and the Heruli put an end to the very name of the western empire; Theodoric founds the kingdom of the Ostrogoths in Italy; and at last Italy becomes a province of the eastern empire, Rome being governed by a duke under the exarch of Ravenna. As the foregoing trumpets relate chiefly to the downfal of the western empire, so do the following to that of the eastern. They are sounded in the ninth, tenth, and part of the eleventh chapters. At the sounding of the fifth trumpet, Mahomet, that blazing star, appears, opens the bottomless pit, and with his locusts the Arabians darkens the sun and air. And at the sounding of the sixth, a period not yet finished, the four angels, that is the four sultans, or leaders of the Turks and Othmans, are loosed from the river Ephrates. The Greek or Eastern empire was cruelly hurt and tormented" un

5

In the twelfth chapter, by the woman bearing a manchild is to be understood the Christian church; by the great red dragon, the heathen Roman empire; by the man-child whom the woman bore, Constantine the Great; and by the war in heaven, the contests between the Christian and Heathen religions.

In the thirteenth chapter, by the beast with seven heads and ten horns, unto whom the dragon gave his power, seat, and great authority, is to be understood, not Pagan but Christian, not imperial but papal Rome; in submitting to whose religion, the world did in effect submit again to the religion of the dragon. The tenhorned beast therefore represents the Romish church and state in general: but the beast with two horns like a lamb is the Roman clergy; and that image of the ten-horned beast, which the two-horned beast caused to be made, and inspired with life, is the pope; whose number is 666, according to the numerical powers of the letters constituting the Roman name Aluvos, Latinus, or its equivalent in Hebrew, “ Romith. ▲ 30

Ι

T 300

AATEINOW

5

10

50

70

Σ 200

666

200 1

61

מ 40

10

10. 400 n

666

Chapter xiv. By the lamb on Mount Sion is meant Jesus; by the hundred forty and four thousand, his church and followers; by the angel preaching the everlasting gospel, the first principal effort made towards a reformation by that public opposition formed against the worship of saints and images by emperors and bishops in the eighth and ninth centuries; by the angel crying, "Babylon is fallen," the Waldenses and Albigenses, who pronounced the church of Rome to be the Apocalyptic

Scripture. Apocalyptic Babylon, and denounced her destruction; and by the third angel Martin Luther and his fellow reformers, who protested against all the corruptions of the church of Rome as destructive to salvation.

For

Scrivener

Scruples.

SCR

SCRIVENER, one who draws contracts, or whose business it is to place money at interest. If a scrivener be entrusted with a bond, he may receive the interest; and if he fail, the obligee shall bear the loss and so it is if he receive the principal and deliver up the bond; for being entrusted with the security itself, it must be presumed that he is trusted with power to receive interest or principal; and the giving up the bond on payment of the money shall be a discharge thereof. But if a scrivener shall be entrusted with a mortgage-deed, he hath only authority to receive the interest, not the principal; the giving up the deed in this case not being sufficient to restore the estate, but there must be a reconveyance, &c. It is held, where a scrivener puts out his client's money on a bad security, which upon inquiry might have been easily found so, yet he cannot in equity be charged to answer for the money; for it is here said, no one would venture to put out money of another upon a security, if he were obliged to warrant and make it good in case a loss should happen, without any fraud in him.

SCROBICULUS CORDIS, the same as ANTICAR

DIUM.

SCROFANELLO, in Ichthyology, a name by which some have called a small fish of the Mediterranean, more usually known by the name of the scorpæna.

SCROLL, in Heraldry. See that article, chap. iv. sect. 9. When the motto relates to the crest, the scroll is properly placed above the achievement; otherwise it should be annexed to the escutcheon. Those of the order of knighthood are generally placed round shields. SCROPHULA, the KING'S EVIL. See MEDICINE, NO 349.

SCROPHULARIA, FIGWORT, a genus of plants belonging to the didynamia class, and in the natural method ranking under the 40th order, Personatæ. See BOTANY Index.

SCROTUM. See ANATOMY, N° 220. SCRUPLE, SCRUPULUS, or Scrupulum, the least of the weights used by the ancients, which amongst the Romans was the 24th part of an ounce, or the 3d part of a dram. The scruple is still a weight among us, containing the 3d part of a dram, or 20 grains. Among goldsmiths it is 24 grains.

SCRUPLE, in Chaldean Chronology, is

part of an hour, called by the Hebrews helakin. These scruples are much used by the Jews, Arabs, and other eastern people, in computations of time.

SCRUPLES of half Duration, an arch of the moon's orbit, which the moon's centre describes from the beginning of an eclipse to its middle.

SCRUPLES of Immersion or Incidence, an arch of the moon's orbit, which her centre describes from the beginning of the eclipse to the time when its centre falls into the shadow.

SCU

SCRUPLES of Emersion, an arch of the moon's orbit, Scruples which her centre describes in the time from the first # emersion of the moon's limb to the end of the eclipse. Scudding. SCRUTINY, (Scrutinium), in the primitive church, an examination or probation practised in the last week of Lent, on the catechumens, who were to receive baptism on the Easter-day. The scrutiny was performed with a great many ceremonies. Exorcisms and prayers were made over the heads of the catechumens; and on Palm Sunday, the Lord's Prayer and Creed were given them, which they were afterwards made to rehearse. This custom was more in use in the church of Rome than anywhere else; though it appears, by some missals, to have been likewise used, though much later, in the Gallican church. It is supposed to have ceased about the year 860. Some traces of this practice still remain at Vienne in Dauphiné, and at Liege. SCRUTINY, is also used, in the Canon Law, for a ticket or little paper billet, wherein at elections the electors write their votes privately, so as it may not be known for whom they vote. Among us the term scrutiny is chiefly used for a strict perusal and examination of the several votes hastily taken at an election; in order to find out any irregularities committed therein, by unqualified voters, &c.

SCRUTORE, or SCRUTOIR (from the French escrutoire), a kind of cabinet, with a door or lid opening downwards, for conveniency of writing on, &c.

SCRY, in falconry, denotes a large flock of fowl. SCUDDING, the movement by which a ship is carried precipitately before a tempest. As a ship flies with amazing rapidity through the water whenever this expedient is put in practice, it is never attempted in a contrary wind, unless when her condition renders her incapable of sustaining the mutual effort of the wind and waves any longer on her side, without being exposed to the most imminent danger of being over

set.

A ship either scuds with a sail extended on her foremast, or, if the storm is excessive, without any sail : which, in the sea-phrase, is called scudding under bare poles. In sloops and schooners, and other small vessels, the sail employed for this purpose is called the square sail. In large ships, it is either the foresail at large, reefed, or with its goose-wings extended, according to the degree of the tempest; or it is the fore-top sail, close reefed, and lowered on the cap; which last is particularly used when the sea runs so high as to becalm the foresail occasionally, a circumstance which exposes the ship to the danger of broaching to. The principal hazards incident to scudding are generally, a pooping sea; the difficulty of steering, which exposes the vessel perpetually to the risk of broaching to; and the want of sufficient sea-room. A sea striking the ship violently on the stern may dash it inwards, by which she must inevitably founder. In broaching to (that is, inclining sudG denly