in fact followed, and which was only understood by Marcion, and by him misunderstood. The normal Christianity of the Twelve Apostles is not in the New Testament. If this position is the true one, Protestantism must lay aside the formal principle of the Protestant Reformation and make a still more radical reformation under the guidance of the new interpretation of Saint Paul's Gospel, or else acknowledge that the Roman tradition bears in it the true teaching of Saint Peter and the Twelve, by which even the New Testament and Saint Paul himself must be tested and explained. This theory of apostolic history is in some respects an improvement upon its predecessors, in that it recognizes the real character of Catholic Christianity in the apostolic age, and makes it plain that Saint Paul did not dominate the faith and life of the apostolic age, as has been commonly supposed among Protestants.1

But the theory is defective in its interpretation of the Gospel of Saint Paul. He is not the antinomian that they represent him to be. They greatly exaggerate the Epistle to the Galatians as the norm of the theology of Saint Paul. This is all the more unreasonable in connection with the tendency at present to regard this epistle as the earliest of the epistles. The theory is also defective in its neglect of the elements of Saint Peter, Saint James, and Saint John in the New Testament. In fact there are four types of New Testament doctrine, all represented in the New Testament; and Catholic Christianity is a result of the harmonious combination of these types.2 Hellenistic Judaism, Palestinian Judaism, the Greek and the Roman world, each in its measure contributed elements of influence for the constitution of the doctrine and life of the Apostolic Church; but there is no sufficient evidence that any of them or all of them were able to impair the genuine apostolic types of teaching.

1 “In dieser Beziehung hat das quantitative Verhältniss der paulin. Literatur zum Ganzen unseres neutest. Kanon irreführend gewirkt, indem man die längste Zeit über auch den Beitrag, welchen der paulin. Lehrbegriff zum Glaubenstand der alten Kirche geliefert haben sollte, nach demselben Maasstabe abschätzte. Und doch cin kirchl. Gemeindebewusstsem, durch und durch angefüllt mit der Gedankenwelt der Pls, zumal, am Anfange der gesammten Enwickelung, eine reine Unmöglichkeit."-H. J. Holzmann, Lehrb. d. N. T. Theologie, 1897, I., s 490, 491. 2 See pp. 538 seq.

8.

It is a common fault of all these later expositions of apostolic history that they exaggerate certain doctrines of Paul which they consider normal, and depreciate the importance of all others, and that they neglect to a large extent the events and facts of apostolic history as recorded in the New Testament. They reverse the relative proportions of doctrine and life as found in the Gospels and book of Acts.

The new impulse to the study of the Old Testament history given by Vatke produced little effect at the time. The school of Hengstenberg was zealous for traditional views of the history, and Vatke's position was too theoretical and too little grounded in genuine literary or historical criticism to be convincing. The school of Hengstenberg reached its goal and end in Keil. Ewald,1 in his massive work on Biblical History, organized the discipline in a scientific form and with extraordinary richness of material, gathered from the treasures of a lifetime of study. Ewald recognized, with the insight of genius, the documentary, poetic, legendary, and even mythical sources in biblical history; but he also saw the facts and events and truth that were involved in them. He hesitates, however, to use the term "myth" because, as he says, the Greek name "mythus" is inseparably connected with the entire nature of heathenism, and is not "Gottessage," but "Göttersage." He prefers to use for the mythical element "heiliger oder besser Gottessage." All subsequent work on the Old Testament history is built on Ewald. The school of Ewald was represented in Great Britain by Stanley, whose work exerted a wide influence, and had a wholesome effect.

Julius Wellhausen first applied the development hypothesis of Vatke to the entire Old Testament history, and reconstructed it accordingly.3 The most elaborate work in the same essential direction is the history of Stade. The school of Ewald is still represented by the work of Kittel. Kent has recently pub1 Geschichte d. Volkes Israel, 7 Bde., 3te Ausg., 1864-1868.

2 History of the Jewish Church, 3 vols., 1863–1879.

3 Wellhausen himself says:

66

Meine Untersuchung ist breiter angelegt als die Graf's und nähert sich der Art Vatke's von welchem letzteren ich auch das Meiste und Beste gelernt zu haben bekenne.” - Geschichte Israels, 1873, s. 11. 4 Geschichte des Volkes Israel, 2 Bd., 1887, 1888.

5 Geschichte der Hebräer, 1888-1892.

lished a brief history of the Hebrew people,1 in a true scientific spirit, but without the extravagance of Wellhausen and Stade. He may be classed with Kittel. All these recent scholars attempt to give us a history of Israel rather than a biblical history.

A more conservative position has been taken by Köhler, who has yet not been able to escape severe criticism from the still more conservative men remaining in the German pulpits.

An able work upon the history of the Jews was written by Grätz, a Hebrew scholar of the first rank, with an excellent historical sense and a rich gathering of material.3

The history of Jost is chiefly devoted to the history of the Jews subsequent to the destruction of Jerusalem, and is of little importance for biblical history.

VIII. ADVANCE IN SEVERAL DEPARTMENTS OF BIBLICAL

HISTORY

In the meanwhile a new department of biblical history sprang into being, and had a rapid development. This was made necessary by the wonderful increase of the knowledge of ancient Greece and Rome, and more especially of the historic monuments of Egypt, Babylon, and Assyria. The first to organize this branch of history into a discipline was Schneckenburger. He defines the discipline in his posthumous lecture, 1862, as the Contemporaneous History, the historical frame for the history, the outer ground on which it moves, or the history of the time in which the events occur. He limits himself to the New Testament, and divides his subject into two parts: (1) The state of affairs in the Roman Empire, especially with reference to religions. (2) Judaism of the New Testament times.5

1 History of the Hebrew People, 1896.

2 Lehrbuch der biblischen Geschichte des A. T., 2 Bde., 1875 seq.

3 Geschichte der Juden von den ältesten Zeiten bis auf die Gegenwart, 11 Bde., 2te Aufl., 1864–1870.

4 Geschichte des Judenthums, 3 Bde., 1857-1859.

5 Schneckenburger, Vorlesungen über Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte, 1862: "Die Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte ist zu unterscheiden von der Neutestamentlichen Geschichte. Sie ist die gleichzeitige Geschichte, gleichsam der historische Rahmen für dieselbe, der aüssere Boden, auf welchen sich die Neutestamentliche Geschichte fortbewegt, oder Geschichte der Zeit, in welcher die Neutestamentlichen Begebenheiten vorfielen."

Bertheau1 had paved the way for this discipline in the Old Testament in 1842, in his dissertation on the inhabitants of Palestine from the most ancient times until the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans. The contemporary history of the New Testament was further advanced by Hausrath,2 Edersheim, and especially by Schürer and O. Holtzmann 5; but no scholar has as yet organized this department for the Old Testament, although a large amount of preparatory work has been done in the study of the archæology and history of Babylonia, Assyria, Egypt, Phoenicia, Persia, and the other ancient nations, who were involved more or less in the history of Israel.

Some of these workers have, by their sound judgment, careful sifting of the material, and scientific use of the methods of historical criticism, made important contributions to our knowledge of the history of the Oriental nations and have thrown much light upon biblical history. Especially deserving of mention are: Schrader, George Smith,7 Lenormant, W. Robertson Smith, Francis Brown,10 Ebers,11 Erman,12 Baudissin,13 Baethgen,14 Tiele,15 McCurdy.1

16

Others have discredited Oriental archæology by hasty conjectures, by unscientific methods of using their material, by

2 Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte, 3 Theile, 1868–1874.

8 The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, 2 vols., 1883.

4 Lehrbuch der Neutestamentlichen Zeitgeschichte, 1874; Geschichte des Jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi, 1886-1890.

5 Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte, 1895.

6 Die Keilinschriften und das A. T., 1872; 2te Aufl., 1883; translated into English, 2 vols., 1885-1886.

7 The Chaldean Account of Genesis, 1876.

8 The Beginnings of History according to the Bible and the Traditions of Oriental Peoples, translated from the 2d French ed., 1882.

Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, 1885; Lectures on the Religion of the Semites, 1889.

10 Assyriology, its Use and Abuse in Old Testament Study, 1885.

11 Aegypten und die Bücher Moses, I., 1868.

12 Aegypten und ägyptisches Leben im Alterthum, 1885-1887; English ed., 1892.

18 Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, 1876-1878.

14 Beiträge zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, 1888.

15 Gesch. v. d. Godsdienst., 1876; translated as Outlines of the History of Religion, 3d ed., 1884; De vrucht der Assyriologie voor de vergelijkende geschiedenis der Godsdiensten, 1877.

16 History, Prophecy, and the Monuments, 3 vols., 1894 seq.

unscrupulous striving for popularity, by the hasty publication of any possible illustration of biblical narratives or any possible verification of biblical material. Among these may be mentioned Vigouroux,1 Sayce,2 and Hommel.3

Biblical geography has been greatly advanced in the present century. Reland summed up all previous knowledge of Palestine, and laid the foundations of the discipline in 1714. But Edward Robinson is the father of modern biblical geography. He made a personal investigation of the greater part of the Holy Land in two expeditions, the one in 1837, the other in 1852, and published the results in three monumental volumes. The most important systematic work on the subject was published by Carl Ritter, 1848-1855.

The work of Robinson was followed up by Tobler, De Sauley, Sepp, Guérin,10 Stanley,11 Tristram,12 Merrill, 18 Wetzstein,14 Palmer, 15 Arnaud,16 Thomson,17 Trumbull.18

A new impulse to the study of biblical geography was given by the Palestine Exploration Societies, established in England, the United States, and Germany. The American society had

1 La Bible et les découvertes modernes, 4 Tom., 3d ed., 1881.

2 The Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the Monuments, 1894; The Early History of the Hebrews, 1897.

8 The Ancient Hebrew Tradition, 1897.

4 Palæstina ex monumentis veteribus illustrata, 1714.

5 Biblical Researches in Palestine and in the Adjacent Regions, 3 vols., Boston, 1841, 2d ed., 1860; Later Biblical Researches in Palestine and in the Adjacent Regions, 2d ed., 1857; Physical Geography of the Holy Land, 1865.

Vergleichende Erdkunde der Sinaihalbinsel, von Palästina und Syrien, 4 Bde., 1848-1855; trans. by Gage, 4 vols., 1866.

7 Bethlehem in Palästina, 1849; Golgotha, 1851; Die Siloaquelle, 1852; Zwei Bücher Topographie von Jerusalem, 2 Bde., 1853-1854; Dritte Wanderung nach Palästina, 1857; Ritt durch Philistäa, 1859; Nazareth, 1868; Bibliographia Geographica Palestinæ, 1867 ; Descriptiones Terræ Sanctæ, 1874. 8 Voyage en Terre Sainte, 2 Tom., Paris, 1865; Jerusalem, 1882.

• Jerusalem und das Heilige Land, 2 Bde., 2te Aufl., 1873-1876.

10 Description geographique, historique et archéologique de la Palestine, 3 Tom., 1868-1880.

11 Sinai and Palestine, in connection with their history, new ed., 1883.

12 The Topography of the Holy Land, 1876; The Land of Israel, 2d ed.,

1866; The Land of Moab, 1873.

18 East of the Jordan, 1875-1877; new ed., 1883.

14 Reisebericht über Hauran und die Trachonen, 1860.

15 Desert of the Exodus, 1871.

17 The Land and the Book, 1864.

16 La Palestine, 1868.

18 Kadesh Barnea, 1884.